Komponen Sistem Pendukung Keputusan (SPK)

Komponen Sistem Pendukung Keputusan
Sistem pendukung keputusan terdiri atas tiga komponen utama yaitu :

1. Subsistem pengelolaan data (database).
2. Subsistem pengelolaan model (modelbase).
3. Subsistem pengelolaan dialog (userinterface).

Batasan SPK, diantaranya adalah :

1. Ada beberapa kemampuan manajemen dan bakat manusia yang tidak dapat dimodelkan, sehingga model yang ada dalam sistem tidak semuanya mencerminkan persoalan sebenarnya.
2. Kemampuan suatu SPK terbatas pada perbendaharaan pengetahuan yang dimilikinya (pengetahuan dasar serta model dasar).
3. Proses-proses yang dapat dilakukan SPK biasanya juga tergantung pada perangkat lunak yang digunakan.
4. SPK tidak memiliki kemampuan intuisi seperti yang dimiliki manusia. Sistem ini dirancang hanyalah untuk membantu pengambil keputusan dalam melaksanakan tugasnya.

Manfaat Sistem Pendukung Keputusan (SPK)

Sistem Pendukung Keputusa (SPK) merupakan suatu sistem yang interaktif, yang membantu pengambil keputusan melalui penggunaan data dan model-model keputusan untuk memecahkan masalah yang sifatnya semi terstruktur maupun yang tidak terstruktur.

Manfaat dari SPK adalah :

1. SPK memperluas kemampuan pengambil keputusan dalam memproses data / informasi bagi pemakainya.
2. SPK membantu pengambil keputusan untuk memecahkan masalah terutama berbagai masalah yang sangat kompleks dan tidak terstruktur.
3. SPK dapat menghasilkan solusi dengan lebih cepat serta hasilnya dapat diandalkan.
4. Walaupun suatu SPK, mungkin saja tidak mampu memecahkan masalah yang dihadapi oleh pengambil keputusan, namun ia dapat menjadi stimulan bagi pengambil keputusan dalam memahami persoalannya, karena mampu menyajikan berbagai alternatif pemecahan.

Karakteristik Sistem Pendukung Keputusan

Konsep Sistem Pendukung Keputusan (SPK) / Decision Support Sistem (DSS) pertama kali diungkapkan pada awal tahun 1970-an oleh Michael S. Scott Morton dengan istilah Management Decision Sistem. Sistem tersebut adalah suatu sistem yang berbasis komputer yang ditujukan untuk membantu pengambil keputusan dengan memanfaatkan data dan model tertentu untuk memecahkan berbagai persoalan yang tidak terstruktur .

Karakteristik sistem pendukung keputusan adalah :

1. Sistem Pendukung Keputusan dirancang untuk membantu pengambil keputusan dalam memecahkan masalah yang sifatnya semi terstruktur ataupun tidak terstruktur dengan menambahkan kebijaksanaan manusia dan informasi komputerisasi.
2. Dalam proses pengolahannya, sistem pendukung keputusan mengkombinasikan penggunaan model-model analisis dengan teknik pemasukan data konvensional serta fungsi-fungsi pencari / interogasi informasi.
3. Sistem Pendukung Keputusan, dirancang sedemikian rupa sehingga dapat digunakan/dioperasikan dengan mudah.
4. Sistem Pendukung Keputusan dirancang dengan menekankan pada aspek fleksibilitas serta kemampuan adaptasi yang tinggi.

Pengertian E-FulFillment

E-FulFillment
E-FulFillment berarti memenuhi atau merealisasikan. Dalam konteks rantai pasokan kita sering mendengar kata order FullFillment yang artinya pemenuhan pesanan konsumen. Beberapa kegiatan yang termasuk dalam proses FullFilment adalah : menerima pesanan dari konsumen, mengelola transaksi, sebagai komunikasi dengan konsumen untuk memberikan informasi status pesanan serta dukungan teknis.

Dengan demikian E-Fulfillment adalah pengelolaan proses-proses diatas dengan media teknoligi informasi dan komunikasi.

Dalam pengertian E-Fulfillment merupakan aktifitas yang secara fisik mengirim produk dan layanan yang ditempatkan pada jaringan system persediaan melalui transaksi E-Commerce.

Pengertian E-SCM (Supply Chain Management)

E-SCM (Supply Chain Management)
E-SCM merupakan suatu konsep manajemen dimana perusahaan berusaha memanfaatkan internet dan teknologinya untuk mengintegrasikan seluruh mitra kerja perusahaan, terutama yang berhubungan dengan sistem pemasokan bahan-bahan atau sumber daya-sumber daya yang dibutuhkan dalam proses produksi (sisi supply). e-SCM merupakan kebalikan dari e-CRM dimana pada e-SCM lebih menekankan pada sisi supplynya yaitu supplier dan distributor yang digunakan sedangkan pada e-CRM lebih menekankan sisi demandnya yaitu konsumen perusahaan.

Pengertian E-Environment

E-Environment
E-environment merupakan pengembangan teknologi dan informasi dalam memperdayakan atau mengenalkan lingkungan hidup sekitar kita. Dari sini kita mengetahui banyak mengenai lingkungan alam yang harus kita jaga. Sehingga manusia dapat langsung melihat bagaimana kondisi alam yang ada disekitarnya.

Components of A Skripsi or Thesis

         Components of A Skripsi or Thesis
                                                                   Written by Ari Julianto

Skripsi or Thesis come in various sizes and shapes. The components of many skripsi or thesis are similar although their functions and requirements may differ according to the degree they are presented for. Below is the most common component of a skripsi or thesis.

1. Cover page- identifies topic, writer, institution, degree and date (year and, if you like, month)
- title, candidate's name and qualifications, degree aimed at, faculty, university, month and year presented.

2. Declaration
- states that the material presented has not been used for any other award, and that all sources are acknowledged
- states that the approval of skripsi or thesis was received and gives the reference number. An example of a declaration page appears below:

This thesis contains no material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any educational institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person,except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.

Signed: ………………………………………

The research for this research received the approval of the English department of Teacher Training of .......University (Reference number: ……….)

3. Acknowledgements
- to thank anyone whose support has been important for your work
- the supervisor generally receives the first vote of thanks. Don’t forget your participants (though remember confidentiality). This section is the least bound by convention. You may speak from the heart.

4. Table of Contents
- lists all major divisions and subdivisions marked by numbers and indicates which page they are on
- the titles and subtitles of sections should appear in a style and size consistent with their position in the hierarchy (see style manuals for help in selecting your system)
- numbering hierarchy: 1, 1.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.1.1

5. Lists of Tables / Figures / Illustrations / Appendices
- lists all of these and the pages on which they appear
- a separate section is used for each of these categories. (It is often handy to number such items using the chapter number first: e.g., Fig 1.1, Fig.2.1, Fig.2.2, etc.)

6. Abstract
- orients the reader/ presents the focal points of the thesis
- summarises the thesis, mentioning aims/purposes, focus of literature review, methods of research and analysis, the findings, and implications Introduction (may be given a more descriptive name to reflect the topic)
- provides background information and rationale for the research, so that the reader is persuaded that it will be useful/interesting. It usually also serves as a frame within which the reader reads the rest of the thesis
- provides background information related to the need for the research
- builds an argument for the research (rationale) and presents research question(s) and aims
- may present personal motivations behind research
- may present a theoretical starting point
- gives an outline of subsequent chapters

7. Literature Review (this may consist of more than one chapter with descriptive titles)
- to show the reader/examiner that you are familiar with issues and debates in the field (you need to explain these and discuss the main players' ideas)
- to show the reader that there is an area in this field to which you can contribute (thus, the review must be critically analytical)
- this is the section where you cite the most, where your use of  verb tense becomes most important in conveying subtle meanings, where you must  beware of unwarranted repetition. This is where plagiarism can become an issue
- you must remember to discuss theory which is directly relevant to your research
- in a minor thesis, this may be incorporated into other parts of the piece presented (e.g., in the introduction, throughout a video, in a discussion). Alternatively a literature review may be the main source of data, and fulfill the aims of the thesis, in which case it may need to consist of one or more large chapters

8. Methodology (research design)
- presents an understanding of the philosophical framework within which you see your inquiry (i.e., discusses epistemology of the research using literature)
- presents a rationale for the methodological approach (using literature)
- describes and justifies the methods of research and analysis (using literature)
- reveals the boundaries of the research (this may occur instead in the Introduction)
- describes what you did (past tense) for selection of site, participants, data gathering and analysis
- it may include illustrations (e.g., a timeline depicting  stages/steps in the research)
- describes steps taken to ensure ethical research practice (shows you are a serious researcher who takes account of how research may affect participants)
- you can discuss issues of validity and reliability here

9. Results (presentation of data)
- presents the data and findings, ordered/analysed in ways justified earlier (methodology)
- past tense is a feature here (usually)
- data in tables should be carefully set out, checked and discussed

10. Discussion (analysis of data)
- discusses findings, drawing out main achievements and explaining results
- makes links between aims and findings (and the literature)
- may make recommendations – these could appear in the Conclusion chapter

11. Conclusion
- draws all arguments and findings together
- leaves the reader with a strong sense that the work you set out to do has been completed, and that it was worthwhile
- summarises major findings
- presents limitations
- presents implications
- suggests directions for future research
- ends on a strong note

12.References (for minor thesis)/ Bibliography (for major thesis)
- shows the reader which texts/materials you have consulted
- is in alphabetical order
- may be annotated, though usually is not
- should not include works you have not used/cited

13. Appendices
- provides a place for important information which, if placed in the main text, would distract the reader from the flow of the argument
- includes raw data examples and reorganized data (e.g., a table of interview quotes organized around themes)
- appendices may be named, lettered or numbered (decide early)
References (for minor thesis)/ Bibliography (for major thesis)
- shows the reader which texts/materials you have consulted is in alphabetical order
- may be annotated, though usually is not
- should not include works you have not used/cited.

(Taken from various sources)

Pengertian E-Filing

E-Filing
E-Filing adalah suatu cara penyampaian Surat Pemberitahuan yang dilakukan melalui sistem on-line dan real time. Electronic Filing Identification Number atau eFIN adalah Nomor Identitas yang diberikan oleh Kantor Pelayanan Pajak tempat Wajib Pajak terdaftar kepada Wajib Pajak yang mengajukan permohonan untuk menyampaikan Surat Pemberitahuan secara elektronik (e-Filing).

Application Service Provider (ASP) adalah Perusahaan Penyedia Jasa Aplikasi yang telah ditunjuk oleh Direktur Jenderal Pajak sebagai perusahaan yang dapat menyalurkan penyampaian Surat Pemberitahuan secara elektronik ke DJP.

ASP yang telah ditunjuk DJP sampai saat ini adalah :

http://www.pajakku.com
http://www.laporpajak.com
http://www.layananpajak.com
http://www.spt.co.id.

What is A Variable?

                      What is A Variable?

                                                  Written by Ari Julianto


I. The Meaning
      A variable is any entity that can take on different values. So what does that mean? Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. Arikunto (1999) stated that variable is an object of research or waht is the target in a research.For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value.
      A variable is a concept or abstract idea that can be described in measurable terms. In research, this term refers to the measurable characteristics, qualities, traits, or attributes of a particular individual, object, or situation being studied.
      Variables are properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can take on different values or amounts. Variables are things that we measure, control, or manipulate in research. They differ in many respects, most notably in the role they are given in our research and in the type of measures that can be applied to them. By itself, the statement of the problem usually provides only general direction for the research study; it does not include all the specific information.

II. Types of Variables
      There are many classification systems given in the literature the names we use are descriptive; they describe the roles that variables play in a research study. The variables described below by no means exhaust the different systems and names that exist, but they are the most useful for communicating about educational research.

1. Independent variables
      Independent variables are variables which are manipulated or controlled or changed. In the example “a study of the effect of teacher praise on the reading achievement of second-graders”, the effect of praise, the researcher is trying to determine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship, so the kind of praise is varied to see whether it produces different scores on the reading achievement test. We call this a manipulated independent variable (treatment variable). The amount and kind of praise is manipulated by the researcher.
      The researcher could analyze the scores for boys and girls separately to see whether the results are the same for both genders. In this case gender s a classifying or attributes independent variable. The researcher cannot manipulate gender, but can classify the children according to gender.

2 Dependent variables
      Dependent variables are the outcome variables and are the variables for which we calculate statistics. The variable which hangs on account of independent variable is known as dependent variable. Let us take the example, a study of the effect of teacher praise on the reading achievement of second-graders; the dependent variable is reading achievement.
      We might compare the average reading achievement scores of second-graders in different praise conditions such as no praise, oral praise, written praise, and combined oral and written praise. Some other variables are expected to be "dependent" on the manipulation or experimental conditions. That is to say, they depend on "what the subject will do" in response.
      Somewhat contrary to the nature of this distinction, these terms are also used in studies where we do not literally manipulate independent variables, but only assign subjects to "experimental groups" based on some pre-existing properties of the subjects.
      Independent variables are those that are manipulated whereas dependent variables are only measured or registered. Consider other examples of independent and dependent variables:

3. Extraneous variable
      Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable.
      Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.

4 Intervening variables
      They intervene between cause and effect. It is difficult to observe, as they are related with individuals feelings such as boredom, fatigue excitement At times some of these variables cannot be controlled or measured but have an important effect upon the result of the study as it intervenes between cause and effect. Though difficult, it has to be controlled through appropriate design.

5 Moderator
      A moderator variable is an independent variable that is not of primary interest that has levels, which when combined with the levels of the independent variable of interest produces different effects.

(Taken from various sources)

Pengertian E- Procurement

E- Procurement
E-Procurement merupakan sistem pengadaan barang atau jasa dengan menggunakan media elektronik seperti internet atau jaringan komputer. E-Procurement diterapkan dalam proses pembelian dan penjualan secara online supaya lebih efisien dan efektif. E-Procurement mengurangi proses-proses yang tidak diperlukan dalam sebuah proses bisnis. Dalam prakteknya, e-Procurement mengurangi penggunaan kertas, menghemat waktu dan mengurangi penggunaan tenaga kerja dalam prosesnya.

10 Tips Mengerjakan Skripsi

    10 Tips Mengerjakan Skripsi
 
                       Written by Ari Julianto   

Mengerjakan tugas akhir dalam bentuk skripsi atau thesis memang suatu hal yang sangat menguras tenaga, pikiran dan kantong kita. Namun, hendaknya kita tetap menjalaninya dengan perencanaan yang baik. Sampai saat ini saya belum pernah mendengar ada satu mahasiswa/i yang tidak lulus hanya karena kualitas skripsinya jelek. Yang terpenting adalah kita tetap menjalankan tugas akhir kita itu. Berikut saya mencoba menyajikan tips bagi mereka yang tengah mengerjakan skripsi. 

1. Pahamilah Permasalahan
Kenalilah permasalahan (problem of the study) skripsi Anda. Tidak mungkin Anda bisa lulus di meja hijau jika Anda sendiri tidak tahu apa permasalahan skripsi Anda. Permasalahan skripsi Anda akan terjawab di BAB V Conclusion and Suggestions.

2. Mengenali Jenis Riset
Sebagaimana kita ketahui ada sejumlah jenis riset. Kenalilah apa jenis riset Anda, apakah itu kualitatif, kuantitatif, experimental, correlational, contrastive dan sebagainya. Ini akan mengarahkan Anda kepada BAB IV Analysis and Findings.

3. Mengalokasikan Waktu
Lupakan sementara hal-hal yang tidak penting dalam hidup Anda selama mengerjakan skripsi ini. Misalnya, rencana pergi piknik, pulang kampung atau rencana pesta pernikahan (apalagi yang untuk nikah kedua kalinya). Kita tidak tahu apa rencana Tuhan. Namun, jika terpaksa, sisihkanlah waktu Anda untuk mengerjakan skripsi itu.

4. Menyiapkan Anggaran
Saya yakin sebagian besar mahasiswa/i telah mempersiapkan dana setahun sebelum ia mengerjakan skripsi baik dari dirinya sendiri maupun suntikan dana dari orang tua. Jangan mengeluarkan uang untuk hal-hal yang tidak perlu sebelum Anda diwisuda.

5. Melacak Sumber Referensi
Tidak mungkin Anda bisa mendapatkan bahan kajian khususnya untuk BAB II Review of Literature jika Anda tidak mempunyai sumber referensi. Jika Anda tidak berhasil mendapatkan bukunya di toko-toko buku, Anda bisa memanfaatkan Mr. Google, search dan download ebook dalam bentuk PDF.

6. Perubahan Tenses
Dalam skripsi FKIP Bahasa Inggris, tenses memegang peranan penting. Jika masih dalam bentuk proposal, tenses dalam BAB III Method of Research keseluruhannya harus dalam bentuk future tense sebab riset itu belum Anda lakukan. Tapi, jika sudah dilakukan maka tensesnya akan menjadi past tense.

7.Jeli Memilih Dosen Pembimbing
Selama perkuliahan kita memiliki beberapa dosen favourite yang sesuai dengan pilihan hati kita. Jadikanlah mereka sebagai dosen pembimbing Anda agar segalanya bisa lancar. Namun, pikirkan juga kualitas ilmu mereka.

8. Sering Bertanya dan Membaca
"Ini gimana....terus ngapain...apa lagi yang ditulis..cemana nyusunnya?" Itulah sejumlah pertanyaan yang sering dilontarkan para mahasiswa/i selama mengerjakan skripsi. Itu tidak salahmalah sebaliknya bisa melancarkan pemahaman Anda mengerjakan skripsi. Tentunya bertanya pada orang atau nara sumber yang tepat. Tak kalah pentingnya baca dan bacalah terus referensi dan isi skripsi Anda. Meski tidak sempurna namun setidaknya Anda memahami isinya.

9. Jangan Mengeluh
Berat memang tapi itulah yang harus Anda jalani. Suka atau tidak suka Anda harus menyelesaikannya. Jangan banyak mengeluh sebab itu akan mengurangi semangat Anda untuk mengakhiri tugas ini.

10.Berdoa
Berdoalah kepada Tuhan, Bila perlu Anda yang Muslim salat Tahajud tengah malam. Mohon diberi kelancaran, kesehatan, dan ketenangan selama mengerjakan skripsi ini.

Demikianlah tips selama mengerjakan skripsi. Semoga posting kali ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amin.

Pengertian E-Bussiness

E-Bussiness
E-Business atau Electronic Business dapat didefinisikan sebagai aktivitas yang berkaitan secara langsung maupun tidak langsung dengan proses pertukaran barang dan/atau jasa dengan memanfaatkan internet sebagai medium komunikasi dan transaksi,dan salah satu aplikasi teknologi internet yang merambah dunia bisnis internal, melingkupi sistem, pendidikan pelanggan, pengembangan produk, dan pengembangan usaha. Secara luas sebagai proses bisnis yang bergantung pada sebuah sistem terotomasi. Pada masa sekarang, hal ini dilakukan sebagian besar melalui teknologi berbasis web memanfaatkan jasa internet. Terminologi ini pertama kali dikemukakan oleh Lou Gerstner, CEO dari IBM.

 
Marketspace adalah arena di internet, tempat bertemunya calon penjual dan calon pembeli secara bebas seperti layaknya di dunia nyata (marketplace). Mekanisme yang terjadi di marketspace pada hakekatnya merupakan adopsi dari konsep “pasar bebas” dan “pasar terbuka”, dalam arti kata siapa saja terbuka untuk masuk ke arena tersebut dan bebas melakukan berbagai inisiatif bisnis yang mengarah pada transaksi pertukaran barang atau jasa.

Seluruh perusahaan, tanpa perduli ukuran dan jenisnya, dapat menerapkan konsep e-Business, karena dalam proses penciptaan produk maupun jasanya, setiap perusahaan pasti membutuhkan sumber daya informasi.

Validity and Reliability (2)

                     Validity and Reliability (2) 

                                                        Written by Ari Julianto 


I. Reliability
Reliability is defined as the extent to which a questionnaire, test, observation or any measurement procedure produces the same results on repeated trials. In short, it is the stability or consistency of scores over time or across raters. Keep in mind that reliability pertains to scores not people.

Thus, in research we would never say that someone was reliable. As an example, consider judges in a platform diving competition. The extent to which they agree on the scores for each contestant is an indication of reliability. Similarly, the degree to which an individual’s responses (i.e., their scores) on a survey would stay the same over time is also a sign of reliability.

An important point to understand is that a measure can be perfectly reliable and yet not be valid. A research example of this phenomenon would be a questionnaire designed to assess job satisfaction that asked questions such as, “Do you like to watch ice hockey games?”, “What do you like to eat more, pizza or hamburgers?” and “What is your favorite movie?”. As you can readily imagine, the responses to these questions would probably remain stable over time, thus,demonstrating highly reliable scores. However, are the questions valid when one is attempting to measure job satisfaction? Of course not, as they have nothing to do with an individual’s level of job
satisfaction.

There are three aspects of reliability, namely: equivalence, stability and internal consistency (homogeneity). It is important to understand the distinction between these three as it will guide one in the proper assessment of reliability given the research protocol.

a. Equivalence, refers to the amount of agreement between two or more instruments that are administered at nearly the same point in time. Equivalence is measured through a parallel forms procedure in which one administers alternative forms of the same measure to either the same group or different group of respondents.

b. Stability, is said to occur when the same or similar scores are obtained with repeated testing with the same group of respondents. In other words, the scores are consistent from one time to the next. Stability is assessed through a test-retest procedure that involves administering the same measurement instrument to the same individuals under the same conditions after some period of time. Test-rest reliability is estimated with correlations between the scores at Time 1 and those at Time 2 (to Time x).

c. Internal consistency concerns the extent to which items on the test or instrument are measuring the same thing. If, for example, you are developing a test to measure organizational commitment you should determine the reliability of each item. If the individual items are highly correlated with each other you can be highly confident in the reliability of the entire scale. The appeal of an internal consistency index of reliability is that it is estimated after only one test administration and therefore avoids the problems associated with testing over multiple time periods.

Internal consistency is estimated via the split-half reliability index,coefficient alpha (Cronbach, 1951) index or the Kuder-Richardson formula 20 (KR-20) (Kuder & Richardson, 1937) index. The split-half estimate entails dividing up the test into two parts (e.g., odd/even items or first half of the items/second half of the items), administering the two forms to the same group of individuals and correlating the responses. Coefficient alpha and KR-20 both represent the average of all possible split-half estimates.

REFERENCES
Allen, M. J., & Yen, W. M. (1979). Introduction to measurement theory. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16,
297-334.
Gulliksen, H. (1950). Theory of mental tests. New York:Wiley.
Kuder, G. F., & Richardson, M. W. (1937). The theory of the estimation of test reliability. Psychometrika, 2, 151-160.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill

Validity and Reliability (1)

                        Validity and Reliability  
                                                               
                                                                     Written by Ari Julianto


The two most important and fundamental characteristics of any measurement procedure in research are reliability and validity. These two principles in research are as follows

I. Validity
Validity is defined as the extent to which the instrument measures what it purports to measure. For example, a test that is used to screen applicants for a job is valid if its scores are directly related to future job performance.

Validity is arguably the most important criteria for the quality of a test. The term validity refers to whether or not the test measures what it claims to measure. On a test with high validity the items will be closely linked to the test’s intended focus. For many certification and licensure tests this means that the items will be highly related to a specific job or occupation.

If a test has poor validity then it does not measure the job-related content and competencies it ought to. When this is the case, there is no justification for using the test results for their intended purpose. There are several ways to estimate the validity of a test including content validity, concurrent validity, and predictive validity. The face validity of a test is sometimes also mentioned.

There are many different types of validity, including: content validity, face validity,criterion-related validity (or predictive validity), construct validity, factorial validity, concurrent validity,convergent validity and divergent (or discriminant validity).

a. Content validity pertains to the degree to which the instrument fully assesses or measures the construct of interest. For example, say we are interested in evaluating employees’ attitudes toward a training program within an organization. We would want to ensure that our questions fully represent the domain of attitudes toward the training program. The development of a content valid instrument is typically achieved by a rational analysis of the instrument by raters (ideally 3 to 5) familiar with the construct of interest.Specifically, raters will review all of the items for readability, clarity and comprehensiveness and come to some level of agreement as to which items should be included in the final instrument.

b. Face validity is a component of content validity and is established when an individual reviewing the instrument concludes that it measures the characteristic or trait of interest. For instance, if a quiz in this class comprised items that asked questions pertaining to research methods you would most likely conclude that it was face valid. In short, it looks as if it is indeed measuring what it is designed to
measure.

c. Criterion-related validity is assessed when one is interested in determining the relationship of scores on a test to a specific criterion. An example is that scores on an admissions test for graduate school should be related to relevant criteria such as grade point average or completion of the program. Conversely, an instrument that measured your hat size would most assuredly demonstrate very poor criterion-related validity with respect to success in graduate school.

d. Construct validity is the degree to which an instrument measures the trait or theoretical construct that it is intended to measure. For example, if one were to develop an instrument to measure intelligence that does indeed measure IQ, than this test is construct valid. Construct validity is very much an ongoing process as one refines a theory, if necessary, in order to make predictions about test scores in various settings and situations.

e. Concurrent validity is a statistical method using correlation, rather than a logical method. Examinees who are known to be either masters or non-masters on the content measured by the test are identified, and the test is administered to them under realistic exam conditions. Once the tests have been scored, the relationship is estimated between the examinees’ known status as either masters or non-masters and their classification as masters or non-masters (i.e., pass or fail) based on the test.

f. predictive validity. This approach is similar to concurrent validity, in that it measures the relationship between examinees' performances on the test and their actual status as masters or non-masters. However, with predictive validity, it is the relationship of test scores to an examinee's future performance as a master or non-master that is estimated. In other words, predictive
validity considers the question, "How well does the test predict examinees' future status
as masters or non-masters?"

to be continued

Pengertian E-Health

E-Health
E-Health (juga ditulis e-health) adalah istilah yang relatif baru untuk praktek kesehatan yang didukung oleh proses elektronik dan komunikasi. Sebagian orang akan berpendapat itu dipertukarkan dengan informatika kesehatan dengan definisi yang luas meliputi proses elektronik / digital dalam kesehatan. Sementara yang lain menggunakannya dalam arti sempit praktik kesehatan menggunakan Internet.

Research Method and Research Methodology

    Research Method and Research Methodology

                                                                  Written by Ari Julianto

          Sometimes students of FKIP or teacher training and education get confused to identify between research method and research methodology. This time, I would like to discuss about these two terms in educational research.
        While preparing the design of the study, it is necessary to think of research method. It is simply the method for conducting research. Generally, such methods are divided into quantitative and qualitative methods. Such quantitative methods include descriptive research, evaluation research and assessment research. Assessment type of studies include surveys, public opinion polls, assessment of educational achievement. 
      Evaluation studies include school surveys, follow up studies. Descriptive research studies are concerned with analysis of the relationships between non manipulated variables. Apart from these quantitative methods, educational research also includes experimental and quasi experimented research, survey research and causal-comparative research. 
      Qualitative research methods include ethnography, phenomenology, ethnomethodology, narrative research, grounded theory, symbolic interaction and case study. Thus, the researcher should mention about methods of research used in his research with proper justification for its use.
      The term methodology seems to be broader, in the sense it includes nature of population, selection of sample, selection/preparation of tools, collection of data and how data will be analysed. Here the method of research is also included.
      Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

(Taken from various sources)
Ok, I guess you all guys understood clearly the difference between these two terms. 

Experimental Research

                   Experimental Research 
                              Written by Ari Julianto

     Today posting discusses about experimental research. Experimental Research is also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method. The experimental method in educational research is the application and adaptation of the classical method of experimentation.
      It is a scientifically sophisticated method. It provides a  method of investigation to derive basic relationships among phenomena under controlled condition or, more simply, to identify the conditions underlying the occurrence of a given phenomenon. Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions.
      Experimenters manipulate certain stimuli, treatments, or environmental conditions and observe how the condition or behaviour of the subject is affected or changed. Such manipulations are deliberate and systematic. The researchers must be aware of other factors that could influence the outcome and remove or control them in such a way that it will establish a logical association between manipulated factors and observed factors.
      Experimental research provides a method of hypothesis testing. Hypothesis is the heart of experimental research. After the experimenter defines a problem he has to propose a tentative answer to the problem or hypothesis. Further, he has to test the hypothesis and confirm or disconfirm it.
      There are four essential characteristics of experimental research: (a) Control, (b) Manipulation, (c) Observation, and (d) Replication.

a. Control : Variables that are not of direct interest to the researcher, called extraneous variables, need to be controlled. Control refers to removing or minimizing the influence of such variables by several methods such as: randomization or random assignment of subjects to groups; matching subjects on extraneous variable(s) and then assigning subjects randomly to groups; making groups that are as homogenous as possible on extraneous variable.

b. Manipulation : Manipulation refers to a deliberate operation of the conditions by the researcher. In this process, a pre-determined set of conditions, called independent variable or experimental variable. It is also called treatment variable. Such variables are imposed on the subjects of experiment. In specific terms manipulation refers to deliberate operation of independent variable on the subjects of experimental group by the researcher to observe its effect. Sex, socio-economic status, intelligence, method of teaching, training or qualification of teacher, and classroom environment are the major independent variables in educational research.

c.Observation : In experimental research, the experimenter observes the effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on dependent variable. The dependent variable, for example, may be performance or achievement in a task.

d. Replication : Replication is a matter of conducting a number of sub-experiments, instead of one experiment only, within the framework of the same experimental design. The researcher may make a multiple comparison of a number of cases of the control group and a number of cases of the experimental group. In some experimental situations, a number of control and experimental groups, each consisting of equivalent subjects, are combined within a single experiment.

The following categories of experimental research designs are popular in educational research: 
a. Pre-experimental designs – They are least effective and provide little or no control of extraneous variables. 
b. True experimental designs – employ randomization to control the effects of variables such as history, maturation, testing, statistical regression, and mortality 
c. Quasi-experimental designs – provide less satisfactory degree of control and are used only when randomization is not feasible. 
d. Factorial designs- more than one independent variables can be manipulated simultaneously. Both independent and interaction effects of two or more than two factors can be studied with the help of this factorial design.

(Taken from various sources)

Pengertian E-Learning

E-Learning
E-learning adalah sistem pendidikan yang menggunakan aplikasi elektronik untuk mendukung belajar mengajar dengan media internet, jaringan komputer, maupun komputer standalone. E-learning adalah semua yang mencakup pemanfaatan komputer dalam menunjang peningkatan kualitas pembelajaran, termasuk di dalamnya penggunaan mobile technologies seperti PDA dan MP3 players. Juga penggunaan teaching materials berbasis web dan  hypermedia, multimedia CD-ROM atau web sites, forum diskusi, perangkat lunak kolaboratif, e-mail, blogs, wikis, computer aided assessment, animasi pendidkan, simulasi, permainan, perangkat lunak manajemen pembelajaran, electronic voting systems, dan lain-lain. Juga dapat berupa kombinasi dari penggunaan media yang berbeda. 

What Is A Thesis?

                   What Is A Thesis?
                                           Written by Ari Julianto

Since the beginning of my posting we always mention the word of Thesis (Skripsi). This time, I try to describe a bit about the word of Thesis (Skripsi).
.
In dictionary the word Thesis can be defined as follows
thesis n 1 a proposition to be maintained or proved. 2 a dissertation esp. by a candidate for a degree. [Middle English via Late Latin from Greek = putting, placing, a proposition,etc.]

hypothesis 1a proposition made as a basis for reasoning without the assumption of its truth. 2 a supposition made as a starting point for further investigation from known facts. [Late Latin from Greek hypothesis ‘foundation’; Greek hypo ‘under’]

One might infer from the etymology above that a thesis is an (obligatory) offering placed at the desk of the examiner by a candidate who wishes to get a degree. This is the most common, and often only, reason why a thesis is written. But there are other reasons for writing a thesis.

A thesis is a written record of the work that has been undertaken by a candidate. It constitutes objective evidence of  the author’s knowledge and capabilities in the field of interest and is therefore a fair means to gauge them. Although thesis writing may be viewed as an unpleasant obligation on the road to a degree, the discipline it induces may have lifelong benefits.

Most of all, a thesis is an attempt to communicate. Science begins with curiosity, follows on with experiment and analysis, and leads to findings which are then shared with the larger community of scientists and perhaps even the public.

The thesis is therefore not merely a record of technical work, but is also an attempt to communicate it to a larger audience. An undergraduate thesis is, at present, graded on the quality of research, the significance of the contributions and the style of  presentation.

Thus, the undergraduate thesis is judged on a similar basis to the postgraduate one. Indeed, the three most commonly cited qualities that earn an undergraduate thesis the first class grade are originality, independence, and mastery.

In short, a thesis—whether undergraduate or postgraduate—is evidence of the candidate’s capacity to carry out independent research under the guidance of a supervisor, and to analyse and communicate the significant results of that work.

The format of the undergraduate thesis is similar, except that the title page is followed by a letter from the candidate addressed to the Executive Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences saying ‘This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of  bachelor of Engineering (with Honours)’ and certifying that it  represents the candidate’s own work.

Meanwhile, in Indonesia, a thesis can be called as Skripsi.Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines Skripsi as follows
skrip·si n karangan ilmiah yg wajib ditulis oleh mahasiswa sbg bagian dr persyaratan akhir pendidikan akademisnya.

Skripsi is a kind of scientific paper that describes the result of sarjana S1 research. It discusses a certain problem/ phenomenon in a certain field of knowledge by using the rules.

(Taken from various sources)

Correlational Research

                          Correlational Research

     Written by Ari Julianto

          Today posting discusses about correlational research. From the word correlation, we could understand the meaning of it. Most research falls into one of two categories: correlational and experimental.
      Understanding the differences between these two types of research is one of the major goals of any introductory research methods course.Correlational research tests for statistical relationships between variables.
      The researcher begins with the idea that there might be a relationship between two variables.  She or he then measures both variables for each of a large number of cases and checks to see if they are in fact related.  The relationship of interest could be either a D relationship or an R relationship, so this might involve making a bar graph and computing d or making a line graph or scatterplot and computingr.  It probably also involves null hypothesis testing to see if the observed relationship is statistically significant.
      Here the researcher focuses on naturally occurring patterns,measures specific variables, and generates statistics for clarification:
a. Focus on naturally occurring patterns: Complex real-world situations are the basis of the investigation. The idea is to clarify these through pattern-making,
b. Measurement of specific variables: the researcher simply measures the variables of interest and analyzes relations among them. These are always variables that can be measured and quantified in some way (the data is quantitative; as ‘solid’ as measurements or object counts, or more ‘abstract’, including people’s attitudes,meaning-making, or perceptions).

Two Types of Correlational Research:
a. Relationship: Here the specific focus is the predictive power of relationships between variables. Here the researcher knows what variable he/she wants to focus on, and then these are applied in some context to see how they relate. 
b. Causal-Comparative: this is an ‘intermediate’ position between the predictive orientation of relationship studies and the focus on causality  that characterizes experimental research. Here the purpose is to isolate factors that cause differences in variables between contexts. Here the first step is to identify a group of particular contexts. Variables are then selected as they seem to vary from context to context.

Data-gathering methods:
a. Survey questionnaire: This is perhaps the most frequently employed tool.It allows the researcher to cover an extensive amount of information across a large number of people in a limited amount of time. 
b. Observation: Direct or indirect. Indirect observation (videotape, time-lapse photography, etc.)
is useful in order to catch all the details). 
c. Mapping: The ways in which people map or draw particular data allows researchers to derive
personalized patterns. 
d. Sorting: This is a great method for generating a creative foundation to a project. Very useful
for establishing patterns between a client and a designer in a design project (it is a very effective
alternative to simply asking people to state their preferences). 
e. Archives: For inanimate objects or ‘removed’ individuals, researchers establish patterns from  archived information. 
f. Factor Analysis: Also for interval-ratio data. Instead of  using key variables to predict the outcomes of other variables, factor analysis aims to articulate an overall pattern. Variables that share similar patterns are grouped into clusters known as ‘factors’. 
g. Multidimensional Scaling: Useful for nominal or interval-ratio data. This process creates a graphic plot that locates relationships in a spatial manner (variables are plotted as points; points plotted in close proximity represent similar patterns, while distant points represent dissimilar patterns).

In short, Correlational research strategy seeks to clarify patterns of relationships between 2 or more variables.

Pengertian E-Commerce

E-Commerce
E-Commerce adalah penyebaran, pembelian, penjualan, pemasaran barang dan jasa melalui sistem elektronik seperti internet atau televisi, www, atau jaringan komputer lainnya. E-Commerce dapat melibatkan transfer dana elektronik, pertukaran data elektronik, sistem manajemen inventori otomatis, dan sistem pengumpulan data otomatis.

Industri teknologi informasi melihat kegiatan e-Commerce ini sebagai aplikasi dan penerapan dari e-bisnis (e-business) yang berkaitan dengan transaksi komersial, seperti : transfer dana secara elektronik, SCM (Supply Chain Management), e-pemasaran (e-marketing), atau pemasaran online (online marketing), pemrosesan transaksi online (online transaction processing), pertukaran data elektronik (electronic data interchange /EDI).

E-Commerce merupakan bagian dari e-business, di mana cakupan e-business lebih luas, tidak hanya sekedar perniagaan tetapi mencakup juga pengkolaborasian mitra bisnis, pelayanan nasabah, lowongan pekerjaan. Selain teknologi jaringan www, e-commerce juga memerlukan teknologi basisdata atau pangkalan data (databases), e-surat atau surat elektronik (e-mail), dan bentuk teknologi non komputer yang lain seperti halnya sistem pengiriman barang dan alat pembayaran untuk e-commerce ini.

E-Commerce pertama kali diperkenalkan pada tahun 1994 pada saat pertama kali banner-elektronik dipakai untuk tujuan promosi dan periklanan di suatu halaman-web (website). Menurut Riset Forrester, perdagangan elektronik menghasilkan penjualan seharga AS$12,2 milyar pada 2003. Menurut laporan yang lain pada bulan oktober 2006 yang lalu, pendapatan ritel online yang bersifat non-travel di Amerika Serikat diramalkan akan mencapai seperempat trilyun dolar US pada tahun 2011.

Contrastive Research

                   Contrastive Research
                                             Written by Ari Julianto

      Today, I would like to post one of the research types in which the contents I have arranged the best I could do. From the word contrast we could understand that we have to find out the difference and the similarities.
      Gast (2011) defines contrastive research as an analysis that  investigates the differences between pairs (or small sets) of languages against the background of similarities and with the purpose of providing input to applied disciplines such as foreign language teaching and translation studies.
      Contrastive studies mostly deal with the comparison of languages that are ‘socio-culturally linked’, i.e. languages whose speech communities overlap in some way, typically through (natural or instructed) bilingualism.
      The assumption that foreign language teaching can be improved by comparing the learner’s native language with the language to be learned came to be known as the “Contrastive Hypothesis”. Its main assumptions can be summarized as follows,Konig & Gast (2008):
• First language acquisition and foreign language learning differ fundamentally, especially in those cases where the foreign language is learnt later than a mother tongue and on the basis of the full mastery of that mother tongue.
• Every language has its own specific structure. Similarities between the two languages will cause no difficulties (‘positive transfer’), but differences will, due to ‘negative transfer’ (or ‘interference’). The student’s learning task can therefore roughly be defined as the sum of the differences between the two languages.
• A systematic comparison between mother tongue and foreign language to be learnt will reveal both similarities and contrasts.
• On the basis of such a comparison it will be possible to predict or even rank learning difficulties and to develop strategies (teaching materials, teaching techniques, etc.) for making foreign language teaching more efficient.

Establishing comparability
Just like linguistic typology, contrastive linguistics has to face the problem of “comparability of incommensurable systems”, Haspelmath (2008). In non-universalist frameworks (such as early structuralist linguistics and its modern successors), linguistic categories are only defined relative to the system that they form part of. Accordingly, the question arises whether categories from different linguistic systems can be compared at all, and if so, how such a comparison can be carried out. In  very general terms, comparison can be defined as the identification of similarities and differences between two or more categories along a specific (set of) dimension(s).
a. Comparison based on form: Consonant inventories
A phonological and morphophonological comparison of two languages is purely form-based insofar as it does not make reference to meaning or function. Specific aspects of phonological organization have figured prominently in (especially early) contrastive studies e.g. Lado (1957).
b. Comparison based on form and function: Temporal categories
Most parameters of comparison investigated in contrastive studies are not purely formal but concern the mapping between form and function. As is well known from typological studies, this mapping is typically (and perhaps universally) many-to-many, i.e. each ontological category can be expressed using various linguistic categories, and each linguistic category covers a certain range of functions.

c. Comparison across functional domains
As was shown in the previous section, the comparison of categories associated with specific functions (‘tense’) typically departs from an ontological category (‘temporal reference’). In specific cases several types of ontological categories (as well as their manifestations in different languages) can be described in terms of the same comparative concept. A relevant example is provided by the two phenomena of relative clause formation and Wh-question formation in English and German, Hawkins (1986).

Reference
Gast, Volker. 2011. Contrastive Linguistics: Theories and Methods.Haspelmath, 
Martin . 2008. Comparative concepts and descriptive categories in cross-linguistic studies. Ms.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hawkins, John (1986). A comparative typology of English and German. Unifying the contrasts. London: Croom Helm.
Konig, Ekkehard and Volker Gast (2008). Understanding English-German Contrasts. 2nd edition (revised). Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag.
Lado, Robert (1957). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Action Research

                         Action Research

                                                               
                                                             Written by Ari Julianto

      This time, I would like to discuss about the Action Research (Penelitian Tindakan). This research is the same as what I have posted in the title posting Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (TPK). Action research is one of those terms that we hear quite often in today’s educational circles. But just what does it mean? If you ask three people to define action research, you may find yourself with three different responses.
      Typically, action research is undertaken in a school setting. It is a reflective process that allows for inquiry and discussion as components of the “research.” Action research can inform teachers about their practice and empower them to take leadership roles in their local teaching contexts. Mills (2003) provides the following definition of  action research:
      Action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers to gather information about the ways that their particular school operates, how they teach, and how well their students learn. The information is gathered with the goals of gaining insight, developing reflective practice, effecting positive changes in the school environment and on educational practices in general, and improving student outcomes.
      Action research is conducted by teachers and for teachers. It is small scale, contextualized, localized, and aimed at discovering, developing, or monitoring changes to practice. The defining features of action research also reflect the qualities of leaders in collaborative cultures of change. These qualities include a deep understanding of the organization, vision and insight, a quest for new knowledge, a desire for improved performance, self-reflective activity, and a willingness to effect change, Fullan (2000a, 2000b). This Digest discusses a framework for conducting action research and describes an action research study carried out in an elementary school Spanish program.
      Action research is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research, Ferrance (2000). Action research is the term which describes the integration of action (implementing a plan) with research (developing an understanding of the effectiveness of this implementation). The original concept is sometimes attributed to Kurt Lewin (1890–1947).
      Action research is characterised as being:- integrated conducted as part of a teacher’s normal daily practice
- reflective a process which alternates between plan implementation and critical reflection
- flexible methods, data and interpretation are refined in the light of the understanding gained during the research process
- active a process designed to generate change in small steps
- relevant meets the needs of teachers and/or their students
- cyclical involving a number of cycles with each clarifying issue leading to a deeper understanding and more meaningful outcomes
- focused on a single issue of school improvement
- collaborative teachers and leaders working together to improve student outcomes
- planned an organised approach to answering a question
- learning simultaneous construction of new knowledge by teachers about their practice.

Mertler (2008) stated that teachers use action research because:
1. it deals with their own problems, not someone else’s
2. it can start now—or whenever they are ready—providing immediate results
3. action research provides them with opportunities to better understand, and therefore improve, their educational practices
4. as a process, action research promotes the building of stronger relationships among staff
5. importantly, action research provides educators with alternative ways of viewing and approaching educational questions providing a new way of examining their own practices.

Types of Action Research
Ferrance (2000) stated that types of action research can be
a. Individual teacher research usually focuses on a single issue in the classroom. The teacher may be seeking solutions to problems of classroom management, instructional strategies, use of materials, or student learning. Teachers may have support of their supervisor or principal, an instructor for a course they are taking, or parents.
b. Collaborative action research may include as few as two teachers or a group of several teachers and others interested in addressing a classroom or department issue. This issue may involve one classroom or a common problem shared by many classrooms. 
c. School-wide research focuses on issues common to all. For example, a school may have a concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities, and is looking for a way to reach more parents to involve them in meaningful ways. Or, the school may be looking to address its organizational and decision-making structures. 
d. District-wide research is far more complex and utilizes more resources, but the rewards can be great. Issues can be organizational, community-based, performance-based, or processes for decision-making.

Steps in Action Research
Within all the definitions of action research, there are four basic themes: empowerment of participants, collaboration through participation, acquisition of knowledge, and social change. In conducting action research, we structure routines for continuous confrontation with data on the health of a school community. These routines are loosely guided by movement through five phases of inquiry:


1. Identification of problem area
There are several criteria to consider before investing the time and effort in “researching” a problem.
• be a higher-order question—not a yes/no
• be stated in common language, avoiding jargon
• be concise
• be meaningful
• not already have an answer 

2. Collection and organization of data
The collection of data is an important step in deciding what action needs to be taken. Multiple sources of data are used to better understand the scope of happenings in the classroom or school. There are many vehicles for collection of data:
interviews   portfolios   diaries   field notes   audio tapes   photos   memos   questionnaires   focus    groups   anecdotal records   checklists   journals   individual files   logs of meetings   videotapes   case studies   surveys   records – tests, report cards,   attendance   self-assessment   samples of student work,   projects, performances

3. Interpretation of data
Analyze and identify major themes.  Depending upon the question, teachers may wish to use classroom data, individual data, or subgroup data.  Some of the data are quantifiable and can be analyzed without the use of statistics or technical assistance. Other data, such as opinions, attitudes or checklists, may be summarized in table form. Data that are not quantifiable can be reviewed holistically and important elements or themes can be noted. 

4. Action based on data
Using the information from the data collection and review of current literature, design a plan of action that will allow you to make a change and to study that change. It is important that only one variable be altered. As with any experiment, if several changes are made at once, it will be difficult to determine which action is responsible for the outcome. While the new technique is being implemented, continue to document and collect data on performance. 

5. Reflection 
Assess the effects of the intervention to determine if improvement has occurred. If there is improvement, do the data clearly provide the supporting evidence? If no, what changes can be made to the actions to elicit better results?

References
Ferrance, Eileen. Action Research.New York: Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory At Brown University.

Fullan, M. (2000a). Change forces. The sequel. Philadelphia: Falmer Press.

Fullan, M. (2000b). Leadership for the twenty-first century: Breaking the bonds of dependency. In The Jossey-Bass reader on educational leadership (pp. 156-63). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mertler, C.A. & Charles, C.M., (2008) Introduction to education research, 6th Edition, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, Mass, page 308.

Mills, G. E. (2003). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Pengertian E-Government

E-Government
E-Government adalah singkatan untuk elektronik pemerintah, juga dikenal sebagai e-gov, digital pemerintah, pemerintah secara online, atau pemerintah terhubung. e-Government. Berdasarkan definisi The World Bank, e-Government adalah penggunaan teknologi informasi oleh kantor pemerintah untuk memberikan pelayanan yang lebih baik kepada masyarakat, bisnis dan untuk menfasilitasi kerjasama antar institusi pemerintah. Dalam prakteknya, e-Government adalah penggunaan Internet untuk menyelenggarakan administrasi pemerintahan dan menyediakan layanan publik yang lebih baik sebaik bentuk pendekatan berorientasi pada layanan publik.

E-Government digunakan untuk berbagai kegiatan pemerintahan yang dibantu melalui media teknologi informasi dan komunikasi.

e-Gov pertama kali diusulkan pada tahun 1990 dan diuji coba di beberapa negara bagian Amerika. Saat ini beberapa negara bagian tersebut telah menerapkan layanan pemerintahan kepada masyarakat dengan menggunakan internet. Berdasarkan definisi di atas, ada paling sedikit tiga bagian penting dalam aplikasi e-Government. Pertama, e-Government menyediakan layanan dan menfasilitasi komunikasi antara pemerintah dan masyarakat (G2C – Government to Citizen), yang kedua antara pemerintah dengan sektor bisnis (G2B – Government to Business) dan yang ketiga inter-pemerintah dan antar institusi pemerintah (G2G – Government to Government).

What Is A Research?

What Is A Research?
                 Written by Ari Julianto


      In this posting, I would like to share the definition of research. The definitions were taken from many resources.Hopefully, this posting is useful for all of us.
      The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
      Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.
      Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data. Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual day- to-day generalisation and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of latter.
      Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
      Research. 1.a. the systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. b. an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical investigation. (Oxford Concise Dictionary).
      Research is what we do when we have a question or a problem we want to resolve We may already think we know the answer to our question already We may think the answer is obvious, common sense even But until we have subjected our problem to rigorous scientific scrutiny, our 'knowledge' remains little more thanguesswork or at best, intuition.
      The term ‘research’ has been viewed with mystique by many people. It is seen to be the preserve of academicians and professional elite. In most people’s minds, the word ‘research’ conjures up the image of a scholar, laboratory work, university or other ‘academic’ setting. But research is simply the process of asking questions and answering them by survey or experiment in an organized way.
      It should not be confined to academicians alone. Every thinking person has the capacity and should do research. The fundamental requirement for research is an enquiring mind in order to recognize that there are questions that need answers. The quest for knowledge then is the basic idea behind research.
      Research has been defined differently by different people. It is perhaps best understood through a clear description of its key characteristics. A few definitions are presented below followed by the key characteristics. Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions toproblems or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships as Waltz and Bausell (1981) stated.
      Research is the process of looking for a specific answer to a specific question in an organized, objective, reliable way. (Payton, 1979).
      Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. (Kerlinger, 1973). Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment; the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem (Kothari, 2006).
      When these definitions are consolidated, it can be said that research is the systematic activity directed towards objectively investigating specific problems in order to discover the relationships between and among variables. It seeks to answer specific questions.
      Moreover, Kothari explained that research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
      The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
      Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown.
      This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
      According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
      D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”
      Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
      In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

Reference
Kerlinger, Fred N. 1973. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Kothari, C. R. 2006. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Age International.
Payton, Otto D.  1979. Research: The Validation of Clinical Practice. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co.  

Waltz, Carolyn Feher and R. Barker Bausell. 1981. Nursing research: Design, statistics, and computer analysis. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co. 

Pengertian E-Education

E-Education

E-Education adalah singkatan dari Electronic Education, merupakan sistem pendidikan berbasis media elektronik, seperti radio dan televisi dan sekarang e-education adalah pendidikan yang menggunakan internet sebagai media utamanya. Sistem E-education memungkinkan untuk diakses melalui berbagai terminal diberbagai tempat sesuai dengan mobilitas pengaksesannya, sehingga lahirlah mobile education (m-education).

Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK)

           Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK)
                                                              
                                                                   Written by Ari Julianto

 

1. Pengertian Penelitian Tindakan Kelas
Dalam bahasa Inggris Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK) diartikan dengan Classroom Action Research (CAR). Dari sisi namanya sudah menunjukkan isi yang terkandung di dalamnya. Karena itu Arikunto dkk (2006) mengartikan penelitian tindakan kelas sebagai suatu pencermatan terhadap  kegiatan belajar berupa sebuah tindakan, yang sengaja dimunculkan dan terjadi dalam sebuah kelas secara bersama. Karena itu penelitian tindakan yang dilakukan oleh guru ditujukan untuk meningkatkan situasi pembelajaran yang menjadi tanggung jawabnya.

2. Fungsi PTK 
Sebagai alat untuk meningkatkan kualitas pelaksanaan pembelajaran kelas, yaitu sebagai:
(a) alat untuk mengatasi masalah-masalah yang didiagnosis dalam situasi pembelajaran di kelas;
(b) alat pelatihan dalam jabatan, membekali guru dengan keterampilan dan metode baru dan mendorong timbulnya kesadaran diri, khususnya melalui pengajaran sejawat;
(c) alat untuk memasukkan ke dalam sistem yang ada (secara alami) pendekatan tambahan atau inovatif;
(d) alat untuk meningkatkan komunikasi yang biasanya buruk antara guru dan peneliti;
(e) alat untuk menyediakan alternatif bagi pendekatan yang subjektif, impresionistik terhadap pemecahan masalah kelas (Cohen & Manion, dalam Madya, 2007).
Hal tersebut dapat dilakukan oleh guru karena:
(1) hasil penelitian tindakan dipakai sendiri oleh penelitinya, dan tentu saja oleh orang lain yang
menginginkannya;
(2) penelitiannya terjadi di dalam situasi nyata yang pemecahan masalahnya segera diperlukan, dan hasil-hasilnya langsung diterapkan/dipraktikkan dalam situasi terkait; (3) peneliti tindakan (guru) melakukan sendiri pengelolaan, penelitian, dan sekaligus pengembangan.

3. Prinsip-prinsip PTK
Agar peneliti memperoleh kejelasan yang lebih baik tentang penelitian tindakan,perlu kiranya dipahami prinsip-prinsip yang harus dipenuhi apabila akan melakukan penelitian tindakan kelas. Hopkins (dalam Aqib, 2007), mengemukakan ada enam prinsip yang harus diperhatikan dalam PTK, yaitu:
(1) Metoede PTK yang diterapkan seyogyanya tidak mengganggu komitmen sebagai pengajar;
(2) metode pengumpulan data yang digunakan tidak menuntut waktu yang berlebihan karena dilakukan sesuai dengan jadwal pelajaran; (3) metodologi yang digunakan harus reliable;
(4) masalah program yang diusahakan adalah masalah yang merisaukankan, dan didasarkan pada tanggung jawab professional;
(5) Dalam menyelenggarakan PTK, guru harus selalu bersikap konsisten dan memiliki kepedulian tinggi terhadap proses dan prosedur yang berkaitan dengan pekerjaannya;
(6) PTK tidak dilakukan sebatas dalam konteks kelas atau mata pelajaran tertentu melainkan dengan perspektif misi sekolah secara keseluruhan.

Sedangkan menurut Arikunto dkk (200) prinsip-prinsip PTK yaitu:
(1) Kegiatan nyata dalam situasi rutin, yaitu penelitian dilakukan tanpa mengubah situasi rutin;
(2) adanya kesadaran diri untuk memperbiki kinerja;
(3) SWOT sebagai dasar berpijak, yaitu penelitian tindakan harus dimulai dengan melakukan analisis SWOT;
(4) PTK adalah upaya empiris dan sistremik;
(5) mengikuti prinsip SMART dalam perencanaan, yaitu
a. S – specifik, khusus, tidak terlalu umum
b. M – Managable, dapat dikelola, dilaksanakan
c. A – Acceptable, dapat diterima lingkungan, atau Achievable, dapat dicapai, dijangkau
d. R – Realisti, operasional, tidak di luar jangkauan, dan
e. T – Time-bound, diikat oleh waktu tertentu.

4. Tujuan
Tujuan penelitian tindakan kelas adalah untuk memperbaiki dan meningkatkan praktik pembelajaran di kelas secara berkesinambungan. Tujuan ini “melekat” pada diri guru dalam penunaian misi professional kependidikannya. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sesungguhnya PTK bertujuan untuk memecahkan permasalahan nyata yang terjadi di dalam kelas. Karena itu menurut Suharjono (2006), tujuan penelitian tindakan kelas adalah meningkatkan mutu proses dan hasil pembelajaran, mengatasi masalah pembelajaran, meningkatkan profesionalisme, dan menumbuhkan budaya akademik.

Sedangkan Arikunto (2006) merinci tujuan PTK, yaitu:
(1) meningkatkan mutu isi, masukan, proses, serta hasil pendidikan dan pembelajaran di sekolah;
(2) membantu guru dan tenaga kependidikan lainna mengatasi masalah pembelajaran dan pendidikan di dalam dan di luar kelas;
(3) meningkatkan sikap professional pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan;
(4)menumbuhkembangkan budaya akademik di lingkungan sekolah sehingga tercipta sikap proaktif di dalam melakukan perbaikan mutu pendidikan dan pembelajaran secara berkelanjutan.

5. Manfaat
 Sehubungan dengan hal tersebut, maka manfaat yang dapat diperoleh jika guru mau dan mampu melaksanakan penelitian tindakan kelas, antara lain:
(1) inovasi pembelajaran,
(2) pengembangan kurikulum di tingkat sekolah dan di tingkat kelas, dan
(3) peningkatan proresionalisme guru

Rustam dan Mundilarto (2004) mengemukakan manfaat PTK bagi guru, yaitu:
(1) Membantu guru memperbaiki mutu pembelajaran,
(2) Meningkatkan profesionalitas guru,
(3) Meningkatkan rasa percaya diri guru,
(4) Memungkinkan guru secara aktif mengembangkan pengetahuan dan keterampilannya.

6. Sasaran atau Objek PTK
Siswa, Guru, Materi Pelajaran, Peraalatan atau sarana pendidikan, Hasil Pembelajaran, Lingkungan, Pengelolaan.
Dua sasaran riset tindakan:
- Tertuju pada penyingkapan atau produksi informasi dan pengetahuan yang akan secara langsung bermanfaat bagi sebuah kelompok orang (melalui riset, pendidikan, dan aksi sosiopolitis).
- Bermaksud mencerahi dan memberdayai banyak orang dalam  kelompok, saling memotivasi untuk mencari dan menggunakan informasi yang terkumpul dalam riset.

Karakteristik umum riset tindakan:
- Pendekatan yang sangat ketat, tetapi reflektif atau interpretif terhadap riset empiris.
- Keterlibatan aktiv individu-individu yang secara tradisional dikenal sebagai subjek (responden) sebagai partisipan dan kontributor dalam kegiatan riset.
- Integrasi sejumlah hasil praktis terhadap penghidupan aktualpara partisipan dalam proyek riset ini.
- Langkah-langkah spiral, masing-masing spiral ini terbentuk dari suatu tipe perencanaan, aksi, dan evaluasi (planning, action, and evaluation).Sejumlah asumsi dan nilai-nilai yang mendasari riset tindakan:
- Demokratisasi produksi dan penggunaan pengetahuan (pencipta IQRO dan pencipta kompor ”SBY” bukan profesor). - Kejujuran/keadilan dalam pemanfaatan pengetahuan
- Sikap yang ekologis terhadap masyarakat dan alam
- Apresiasi terhadap kapasitas manusia untuk merefleksi, belajar, dan berubah
- Sebuah komitmen terhadap perubahan sosial tanpa kekerasan dengan beragam manifetasinya.

(Dari berbagai sumber)
 
Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini.Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.