Criteria of Good Research

                  Criteria of Good Research

Written by C.R. Kothari in Research Methodology, Methods and Technique. New Age International Publisher.Jaipur. 2004.


Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research12 as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.

Sample of A Skripsi or Thesis (1B)

         Sample of A Skripsi or Thesis (1B)

                                               Written by Ari Julianto


CHAPTER III
METHOD OF RESEARCH

A.    Research Design
          Literary work has many aspects and dimensions of elements. Interpreting the literary work needs appropriate theory and methodology related to those elements. The data of this study were analyzed by using qualitative approach. Qualitative approach is an approach in the form of written text, word phrase, or symbol describing or representating people, action, and events in social life.
          Kothari (2004: 3) states that qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
          This research was conducted in the Library of .....................................by using a descriptive qualitative method during January until March 2013. By using this descriptive method, the researcher analyzed the infinitive forms including the types of infinitive used by the writers of educational news, and find out the most dominant types of infinitive forms. The researcher took 1 piece of news for each week. It means there were 12 articles of educational news in BBC News Online.

B.    Source of the Data
          The data of this study were taken from the educational news of BBC News Online in website http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ as the source of the data. This research started on the first week of January until the fourth week of March 2013 that totally there were 12 articles.
           Besides that, library research was used in analyzing the data required, the researcher will collect the data and read some books that relates to the research. Descriptive research was carried out to describe the use of infinitive forms and the most dominant types of infinitive in educational news of BBC News Online.

C. Technique for Collecting Data
          The data were analyzed by using descriptive technique, through some steps. The steps are as follows:
a. reading all the selected articles of educational news of British Broadcasting Corporation News Online,
b. identifying each sentence that contains infinitive forms,
c. classifying the infinitive forms to find out the type of infinitive.

D. Technique for Analyzing Data
           The data were analyzed by finding out the infinitive forms in the educational news of BBC News Online and then identify them based on the three types. The steps are as follows:
1. selecting the educational news of BBC News Online,
2. identifying the type of infinitive in each sentence from the news,
3. classifying each type of the infinitive appearing in the news into three types: Bare infinitive (simple infinitive), Full infinitive (to infinitive), and Infinitive phrases (infinitival phrase),
4. calculating the percentage of each type of infinitive by using Sudijono’s (2004: 43) formula as the follow    
Where:   
P = the percentage of the forms of infinitive
X = the total number of one form of infinitive
Y = the total number of the whole type of infinitive
5. Finding out the most dominant type of the infinitive appearing in the educational news of BBC Online.

CHAPTER IV
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

A. Data Collection
          The researcher collected the data of this research by using stratified random sampling where all the infinitive forms in the educational news of BBC Online were collected. It means the researcher analyzed all the infinitives in the 12 educational news that were collected from January until March 2013.  After analyzing the sources of the data in educational news of BBC Online, the data can be presented for each source as in the following tables, the bold words are infinitives.

Table 4.1. Data Collection of Educational News

in BBC Online On 3 January 2013

and so on

B. Data Analysis
          After collecting and identifying the data of Educational News in BBC Online, then the data were analyzed to find out the use of infinitives. In this research, the data were analyzed based on the types of the infinitive Bare infinitive (simple infinitive), Full infinitive (to infinitive), and Infinitive phrases (infinitival phrase). The analysis of the data can be shown as in the following table.
Note:    BI = Bare infinitive       FI = Full infinitive IP= Infinitive phrase

Table 4.13 Analysis the Use of Infinitive

in Educational News of BBC Online

          And the percentage of each kind of Prepositional Phrase can be reported as shown in the following table by using the Sudijono’s (2004: 43) formula as follows                  
Where:  
P = the percentage of Infinitives type
F = the total number of one type of Infinitives
N = the total number of all Infinitives types

Table 4.14

Data Analysis on All Editions and the Percentage of Infinitives

C. The Findings
          After the researcher analyzed all the data of infinitives in BBC News Online, the findings can be reported as follows:
1.  In educational news of BBC News Online, all the three forms of infinitives can be found; they were bare infinitives, full infinitives, and infinitives phrase,
2. In each edition of educational news of BBC News Online, the readers can find infinitives except inflectional phrases that not all editions appeared,
3. The most dominant kind of infinitive form appeared in educational news of BBC News Online was full infinitive that was 46.25 %. Meanwhile, the fewest kind of suffix form was infinitive phrases that was 11.25 %.






CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

A. Conclusions
          After analyzing all the data obtained, some conclusions can be drawn as follows:
1.  In educational news of BBC News Online, all the three forms of infinitives can be found; they were bare infinitives, full infinitives, and infinitives phrase. In each edition of educational news of BBC News Online, the readers can find infinitives except inflectional phrases that not all editions appeared,
3. The most dominant kind of infinitive form appeared in educational news of BBC News Online was full infinitive that was 46.25 %. Meanwhile, the fewest kind of suffix form was infinitive phrases that was 11.25 %.


B. Suggestions
          From the data obtained, then the researcher would like to suggest as follows:
1.  In reading English news in a newspaper, the readers should be aware of the existence of infinitives understandable process of words in understanding the content of the news,
2. The readers should understand wholly the meanings and the forms of derivational affixes including suffix and prefix forms that found in English news,
3.  In understanding the derivational affix appeared in English news, the readers might guess the basic word and meanings by recognizing the prefix and suffix,
4.  The readers, hopefully, recognize the entire derivational affix either in the form of suffix or prefix in order to avoid the ambiguity and misunderstanding the meaning of the content.

REFERENCE
Adams, David. 2001. Writing Better Reports. Michigan State University.
Downing, Angela. 2006. English Grammar University Course Book. London: 
        Rotledge.
Galasso, Joseph. 2002. Analyzing English Grammar:An Introduction to Feature Theory. California: California State University, Northridge.
Good, Thomas L and Brophy, Jere G. 1990. Educational Psychology: A Realistic Approach. New York: Longman.
Jespersen, Otto. 1993. Essentials of English Grammar. London: Routledge.
Longman. 2009. Longman Dictionary of American English. London: Pearson   
        Longman.
Makodia, Vipul P. 2008. Advanced English Grammar and Communication. Jaipur: Paradise Publishers.
Martin, Wren, P.C.1998. High School English Grammars and Composition. New Delhi: Chan S Company.
Reeves, Thomas C. 1998. The Impact of Media and Technology in Schools. Georgia: The University of Georgia.
Richards, Jack C. and Richard Schmidt. 2002. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. London. Pearson Education Limited
Rivas Mera, MR. 1999. Reading in Recent ELT Course Books, ELT Journal Vol.53/1 January. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Spencer, M. Lyle. 2009. News Writing. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. publishers.
Sudijono, Anas. 2004. Pengantar Evaluasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Raja Grafindo 
        Persada.
Swan, Michael. 1995. Practical English Usage, England: ELBS.
Thomson, A.J and A.V Martinet. 1986. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Vergouwen, Lotte. 2006. Playful Learning, Teaching Games: An Exploration of the Role of Digital Media in School Education. Utrecht University: Master New Media and Digital Culture.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News_Online, Contributed by Wikipedia. Accessed on 22 December 2012.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitive. Contributed by Wikipedia. Accessed on 22 December 2012.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/. Contributed by BBC.

(Finish)

Sample of A Skripsi or Thesis (1A)

          Sample of A Skripsi or Thesis (1A)
                                                        Written by Ari Julianto

Here is an example of analysis thesis. I would not say that this  thesis is a good and qualified one as I know we can find some mistakes either grammatically or structurally. Anyway, this sample may help you to understand better about educational research. I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.



                  THE USE OF INFINITIVE IN EDUCATIONAL NEWS OF BBC ONLINE


CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION

A. The Background of the Study
          Language is inseparable from almost every human activity. It is a means of communication and the basic fundamental function of language in daily communication. Besides that every language has a different characteristics and difficulties. Language also has connection with four aspects; they are listening, speaking, writing and reading. Language is very important for our life and we cannot ignore language and we have to study it.
          Language, especially English is very essential to be learned by Indonesian people because English is an International language that is taught in Indonesia schools. It is asserted that comprehension is enabled when readers construct mental situation models that incorporate elaborated text-based information with readers’ available prior knowledge. Situation models are flexible mental representations that are constantly updated to reflect the most recent conceptualizations of read text information.
          In Indonesia, English is regarded as the language of sentence. Text books are mostly written in English, not only books in learning English but also the other disciplines since all Moslems are obliged to search for knowledge then we should consider. Students and teachers are interested in the development of education occurs in this country or world.  The educational news is necessary in this case. It can be found in any kinds of media, such as newspaper, books, magazines, letters, tabloids etc.
          English is the dominant language of the Internet. The Internet will in turn become the dominant place to learn English. The way languages are learned is changing, and these changes are accelerating. We can access English language content on any subject and learn from it. We can connect with English speaking people who share our interests. We can do this via e-mail, through blogs, podcasts and forums. The World Wide Web is the ultimate dynamic classroom and learning community.
          The Internet is constantly evolving. It has created a dynamic environment for the communication and the management of information. The Internet has brought with it new forms of social interaction without boundaries. Technologies are making an immense variety of communication, information, literature, news and other language content available anywhere and anytime. One of the famous online news is BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation). This news online is very popular since the first launched in November 1997.
          BBC News Online can be browsed in http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ in which the website contains international news coverage, as well as British, Business, Technology, Entertainment/Arts, Science/Environment, Health, Sport that all presented for educational news. Many reports are accompanied by audio and video from the BBC's television and radio news services, while the latest TV and radio bulletins are also available to view or listen to on the site together with other current affairs programmes. In May 2012 the BBC News website won the People's Voice award for newswebsite at the 16th annual Webby Awards. Internet users with IP addresses originating from the UK are served the UK edition, all others receive the World edition.
          In reporting the educational news, the author or the writer uses some essential parts of speech and one of them is infinitive. Downing (2006: 13) stated that tense is carried not only by lexical verbs but also by the finite operators. If the verb-form does not signal either tense or modality, the verb and the clause are classified as non-finite. In non-finite there are some categories like the infinitive (inf.) be, eat, lock, go sometimes called the ‘bare’ infinitive; the to-infinitive (to-inf); the participial -ing form (-ing) being, eating, locking, going; and the past participial form, symbolised in this book as -en been, eaten, locked, gone. These forms are said to be non-tensed.
          There are there types of infinitive i.e. bare infinitive (simple infinitive), full infinitive (to infinitive), and infinitive of phrases. The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to. Usually it also functions as a noun, although it can be an adjective or adverb for examples
-    to jump is fun (noun, subject of is),
-    I like to ski (noun, object of like),
-    she had a suggestion to offer (adjective modifying suggestion),
-    He called to warn her (adverb modifying called)
          Furthermore, the infinitive has a form of phrase that is called the infinitive phrase. This consists of an infinitive together with its modifier and complements. The entire phrase may be used as a noun, adjective and adverbs as well for examples
-    to stay in shape requires dedication and discipline (noun),
-    the thing to do first is an activity you enjoy (adjective)
-    I came to Austin to see the art exhibit (adverb)
          There is no educational news without an infinitive since the information for the readers is very important by using infinitive. Based on the previous explanation, the researcher would like to analyze the use of infinitive in education news of BBC online. Hopefully, this analysis will be useful and benefit for those who are interested in English grammar and news. 

B. The Identification of the Problems
The problems of this study are identified as follows:
1. The use of infinitive in educational news of BBC online,
2. The most dominant type of infinitive used in educational news of BBC online.

C. The Scope and Limitation
This research is focused on the use of infinitives in the form of bare infinitives or to infinitive and infinitive phrases. Besides that this research also focused on the functions of infinitive that is as a noun, adjective and adverb. BBC news online in this case http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ is used as the source of this research which is limited only in educational news. 

D. The Formulation of the Study
The problems of this study were formulated as follows:
1.  What types of infinitive found in educational news of BBC online?
2.  What is the most dominant type of infinitive found in educational news of BBC online?

E. The Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1.  to describe the types of infinitive in educational news of BBC online
2.  to find out the most dominant type of infinitive found in educational news of BBC online

F. The Significance of the Study
It is expected that the results of this study will be useful for:
1.  The university students who would like to know the use of infinitive in online news especially in BBC,
2.  Contribution of the teachers/lecturers who would like to learn and understand the educational news in online media,
3.    Other researchers who are interested in analyzing English infinitive in a text,
4.  The internet users or readers that hopefully the findings of this research will be useful for them in understanding the content of the news.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Framework
1. Description of Infinitive
          English language has three non-finite verbal forms, but by long-standing convention, the term "infinitive" is applied to only one of these. (The other two are the past- and present-participle forms, where the present-participle form is also the gerund form.).
          In English, a verb's infinitive is its unmarked form, such as be, do, have, or sit, often introduced by the particle to. When this particle is absent, the infinitive is said to be a bare infinitive; when it is present, it is generally considered to be a part of the infinitive, then known as the full infinitive (or to-infinitive), and there is a controversy about whether it should be separated from the main word of the infinitive. Nonetheless, modern theories typically do not consider the to-infinitive to be a distinct constituent, instead taking the particle to for operating on an entire verb phrase; so, to buy a car is parsed as to [buy [a car]], not as [to buy] [a car].
          Infinitive is a grammatical term used to refer to certain verb forms that exist in many languages. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. In traditional descriptions of English, the infinitive is the basic dictionary form of a verb when used non-finitely, with or without the particle to. Thus to go is an infinitive, as is go in a sentence like I must go there (but not in I go there). The latter is called the bare infinitive, the former the full infinitive or to-infinitive. In many other languages the infinitive is a single word, often with a characteristic inflective ending, such as manger ("(to) eat") in French, portare ("(to) carry") in Latin, lieben ("(to) love") in German, etc.
          Swan (1983: XXIV) mentions that infinitive is the base form of a verb (usually with to), used after another verb, after an adjective or noun, or as a subject or object of a sentence. Moreover, Swan gives some examples as follows
-    I want to go home,
-    It’s easy to sing. 
-    I’ve got a plan to start a business
          Some languages do not have any forms identifiable as infinitives. Many Native American languages and some languages in Africa and Australia do not have direct equivalents to infinitives or verbal nouns. In their place they use finite verb forms in ordinary clauses or various special constructions.
          Forms identified as infinitives are generally non-finite verbs in most uses. They may function as other lexical categories, such as nouns, within the clauses that contain them, for example by serving as the subject, object or complement of another verb or preposition. As non-finite verbs, they are generally used without a stated subject, and as a rule they are not inflected to agree with any subject; nor do they normally inflect for other categories such as tense, aspect, mood or voice (although such inflection sometimes occurs to a certain degree, for example Latin has distinct active and passive infinitives).
          Other non-finite verb forms which often share many of the above properties (but are not classed as infinitives) include participles. Meanwhile Tulloch (1990: 8) states “Verbs are either finite or non-finite. Non-finite verbs do not include any indication of tense. One kind of non-finite verb is the infinitive”. The infinitive is the basic form of the verb. It is often combined with to as in I am going to stand here. However the infinitive is not always preceded by to: in the sentence I will stand the infinitive is stand. Combined with will the infinitive stand makes the finite (future tense) verb will stand. Other non-finite parts of the verb are the participle.
          The bare infinitive and the full infinitive are mostly in complementary distribution. They are not generally interchangeable, but the distinction does not generally affect the meaning of a sentence; rather, certain contexts call almost exclusively for the bare infinitive, and all other contexts call for the full infinitive.
Downing (2006: 13) stated that tense is carried not only by lexical verbs but also by the finite operators. If the verb-form does not signal either tense or modality, the verb and the clause are classified as non-finite. In non-finite there are some categories like the infinitive (inf.) be, eat, lock, go sometimes called the ‘bare’ infinitive; the to-infinitive (to-inf); the participial -ing form (-ing) being, eating, locking, going; and the past participial form, symbolised in this book as -en been, eaten, locked, gone. These forms are said to be non-tensed.
          The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to. Usually it also functions as a noun, although it can be an adjective or adverb for examples
-    to jump is fun (noun, subject of is),
-    I like to ski (noun, object of like),
-    she had a suggestion to offer (adjective modifying suggestion),
-    He called to warn her (adverb modifying called)

2. Types of Infinitives
          Richards and Schmidt (2009: 256) defines infinitive (noun) as the base form of a verb (e.g. go, come). In English the infinitive usually occurs with the infinitive marker to (e.g. I want to go) but can occur without to as with auxiliary verbs (e.g. Do come! You may go). The infinitive without to is known as the bare infinitive or simple form. The infinitive with to is sometimes called the “to-infinitive”.  Meanwhile in Longman Dictionary of American English infinitive is defined as in grammar, the basic form of a verb, used with “to.” In the sentence I forgot to buy milk, “to buy” is an infinitive. [ORIGIN: 1400—1500 Late Latin infinitivus, from Latin infinitus; because the verb is not limited by person or number].
          Jespersen (1993: 271) states that the infinitive is now a purely verbal form. This is shown negatively by the fact that it cannot be preceded by the definite or indefinite article, an adjective, or a genitive, and positively by the fact that it can take an object and an adverb (or other tertiary), and that it possesses a perfect and a passive. On the other hand, it has so far retained its substantial character as it can stand as a subject or object, etc.; a reminiscence of its origin is also the mixed active-passive character of the infinitive in some cases.
          Types of infinitive as some experts concluded that it is quite difficult to make the rule, but basically there are three types of infinitive, they are:
a.    Bare infinitive (simple infinitive)
b.    Full infinitive (to infinitive), and
c.    Infinitive phrases (infinitival phrase)

          The infinitive is the dictionary form of a verb, and is generally the form of a verb that receives a definition; however, the definition itself generally uses a to-infinitive. So, The word 'amble' means to walk slowly. The to infinitive form coincides with the present subjunctive form as well as the imperative form, but most grammarians do not consider uses of the present subjunctive or imperative to be uses of the bare infinitive.
          Meanwhile infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive together with its modifier and complements. The entire phrase may be used as a noun, adjective and adverbs as well. A phrase as Longman Dictionary of American English (2009: 75) defines as “a phrase is a group of words which form a grammatical unit. A phrase does not contain a finite verb and does not have a subject-predicate structure.

2.1 Bare Infinitive
          Bare infinitive or simple infinitive also called infinitive without to. This type of infinitive is commonly used after the verbs will, would, shall, should, may, might, can, could and must. For examples
-  I will pay the bill,
- You should work harder,
- He can speak five languages,
- You must come to the office at nine tomorrow,
The Infinitive without to is also used after had better, had rather, would rather, sooner than, rather than; as,
- You had better ask permission,
- I had rather play than work,
- I would rather die than suffer so,
          The bare infinitive is used as the main verb after the dummy auxiliary verb do or most modal auxiliary verbs (such as will, can, or should). So, I will/do/can/etc. see it. Several common verbs of perception, including see, watch, hear, feel, and sense take a direct object and a bare infinitive, where the bare infinitive indicates an action taken by the main verb's direct object. So, I saw/watched/heard/etc. it happen. (A similar meaning can be effected by using the present participle instead: I saw/watched/heard/etc. it happening. The difference is that the former implies that the entirety of the event was perceived, while the latter implies that part of the progress of the event was perceived.).
          Downing (2006: 13) stated that the infinitive (inf.) like be, eat, lock, go sometimes called the ‘bare’ infinitive. Similarly with several common verbs of permission or causation, including make, bid, let, and have. So, I made/bade/let/had him do it. (However, make takes a to-infinitive in the passive voice: I was made to do it.) After the had better expression. So, You had better leave now.  With the verb help. So, He helped them find it.  With the word why. So, Why reveal it? Use of the to-infinitive following why is also common.
Swan (1983: 261) concluded that there are some usages for bare infinitive, they are
a. After modal auxiliary verbs, for example I must go now (must is auxiliary verbs),
b. After let, make, hear etc for example She lets me stay here for a night,
c.  After why (not) for example Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest price,
d. After and, or, except, but, than, as and like for example I’d like to lie down and go to sleep,
e. After do for example All I did was give him a little push

2.2 Full Infinitive (to Infinitive)
          The full infinitive (or to-infinitive) is used in a great many different contexts: Outside of dictionary headwords, it is the most commonly used citation form of the English verb: How do we conjugate the verb to go? It can be used like a noun phrase, expressing its action or state in an abstract, general way. So, to err is human; to know me is to love me. (However, a gerund is often preferred for this — Being is doing would be more natural than the abstract and philosophical sounding to be is to do.) It can be used like an adjective or adverb, expressing purpose or intent. So, The letter says I'm to wait outside, or He is the man to talk to, or [In order] to meditate, one must free one's mind. In either of the above uses, it can often be given a subject using the preposition for: For him to fail now would be a great disappointment; [In order] for you to get there on time, you'll need to leave now. The former sentence could also be written, His failing now would be a great disappointment.
          Jespersen (1993: 272) divided the to infective as two positions they are
a. Infinitives as primary. The infinitive may stand as the subject, predicative and the object for examples:
- To see you is always a great pleasure (subject),
- My chief purpose has been to point out the difficulties of the matter (predicative),
- They promised us to refrain from hostilities (object)
b. Infinitives as secondary. An infinitive may be used as an adjunct placed before, after a substantive. For examples:
- This never-to-be-forgotten day.His not to be alienated inheritance (before)
- She is not the kind of girl to encourage lovers (after).
           Full infinitive or to infinitive can be used after many intransitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the subject of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, I agreed to leave, or He failed to make his case. With some verbs the infinitive may carry a significantly different meaning from a gerund: compare I stopped to talk to her with I stopped talking to her, or I forgot to buy the bread with I forgot buying the bread.
          This type of infinitive can be used after the direct objects of many transitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the direct object of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, I convinced him to leave with me, or He asked her to make his case on his behalf. However, in some cases, the subject of the main clause is also subject of the infinitival clause, as in John promises Mary to cook, where the person who will cook is John (the subject of the main sentence), and not Mary (the object).
          As a special case of the above, it can often be used after an intransitive verb, together with a subject using the preposition for: I arranged for him to accompany me, or I waited for summer to arrive.

2.3 Infinitive Phrases 
An infinitive phrase is a group of words starting with an infinitive and including the infinitive’s object and/or its modifiers. Although an infinitive is a verb form, it is never part of the main verb of the sentence. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive together with its modifier and complements. The entire phrase may be used as a noun, adjective and adverbs as well for examples
-    to stay in shape requires dedication and discipline (noun),
-    the thing to do first is an activity you enjoy (adjective)
-    I came to Austin to see the art exhibit (adverb)
          Thomson and Martinet (1986: 2012) stated that the infinitive may be used alone as in we began to walk, or as part of an infinitive phrase like we began to walk down the road. The phrase to walk down the road is called an infinitive phrase. It is more usual to place the pronoun it first, and move the infinitive or infinitive phrase to the end of the sentence like It is dangerous to lean out of the window.
Infinitive phrase also can be placed as the subject or objet of the sentence. For examples
- To avoid burning another bag of popcorn, pressed your nose (subject)
- Janice and her friends went to the mall to flirt with the cute guys who congregate at the food court. (object).

3. Forms of Infinitive
          Swan (2002: 259) stated that besides simple, full ad infinitives of phrases, infinitive can also have some forms, they are
a.    Progressive infinitive, It’s nice to be sitting here with you
b.    Perfect infinitive, I’m sorry not to have come on Thursday
c.    Passive infinitive, She ought to be told about it
         Furthermore, Thomson and Martinet (1986: 212) also divided the forms of infinitive as follows
a. Present infinitive to work, to do,
b. Present continuous infinitive to be working to be doing,
c. Perfect infinitive to have worked, to have done,
d. Perfect continuous infinitive to have been working, to have been doing,
e, Present infinitive passive to be done,
f. Perfect infinitive passive to have been done

          Besides that Gallaso (2002: 82) describes some other forms of infinitive, they are Adjectival Infinitives, Adverbial infinitives, and Nominal infinitives.
a. Adjectival Infinitives. Adjectival Infinitives have the distinct quality of an adjective embedded in the form of an infinitive verb. One way to see through this adjectival quality is to note that they can be restated as relative clauses. Consider the examples given below:
- John is building a table to fit into the corner
- John is building a table that will fit into the corner (relative clause).
- John is building a “corner table” (Adj + N]
In John is building a table to fit into the corner, the infinitive verb to fit is considered to have adjectival qualities in that it can modify the Noun that precedes it--i.e., it describes (as an adjective) the kind of table being built (a ‘corner-table’).
b. Adverbial Infinitives. Adverbial infinitives can either be turned into a Wh-question (by using why) or be paraphrased with in order to...
- Mary first needs to have completed Grammar 302 to take this class.
- In order to take this class, Mary needs to complete Grammar 302.
- Why does Mary need to take this class?
Clearly, the above examples are not adjectival--one couldn’t say a “completed Grammar 302 class” like one would be able to say a “corner table”. These adverbial Infinitives speak more closely to the action or state of the verb than to the substantive qualities of the noun.
c. Nominal Infinitives. Nominal Infinitives are interesting because once again, our substitution test can make claims about the sort of modification taking place. Consider the token sentences below:
- She wants to ski in Italy during her winter break.
  (She wants to ski equates to the pronoun ‘it’ or something)
- Mary likes to clean glasses at her work at the café
- Mary doesn’t mind doing ‘it’ (it = to clean glasses).

          Makodia (2008: 99) even gives another forms and terms for infinitive. He mentions the terms of Imperative Mood. The Imperative Mood commands, advises, or entreats; as, Do this; forgive and forget; Spare his life. Imperative means commanding. The Imperative is the root of the verb from which the other parts are derived.
          The Infinitive Mood simply names the action, and is not limited by time, person, or number; as, to write. Infinitive means without end. It is not properly a mood, but is a verb used as a noun. The preposition to is usually prefixed, and is hence called the sign, or mark, of the infinitive. It may be either in the nominative or in the objective case.
          The name Potential Mood has been given to such forms as, He can read; She may go; but it is now generally given up. Can is in the indicative; read is in the infinitive. To is left out after can, may, etc.  Potential means having power.
          But in news, Spencer (2009: 45) stated that infinitive and participle with the past tense of verbs is also a cause of frequent error. Our English rule regarding these parts of the verb is mainly a matter of usage, accuracy in which may be attained only by habits of correct speech. But if the reporter will bear in mind that the infinitive and the participle have no finite tense of their own, that they always express time relative to the time of the main verb, he will have taken a real precaution toward preventing confusion.
          Besides that the distinction between the active and passive infinitive in Pictures are not the only things to see at Florence (=worth seeing), In the street, umbrellas were the only things to be seen (=that could be seen). Combinations with about and to-infinitive can be used in this way as adjuncts: No one could have had the slightest foreboding of anything about to happen, With drooping head like a prisoner about to receive his sentence.
          In writing news, Adams (2001: 7) suggests that we can eliminate a host of writing problems by using strong, precise verbs or infinitives in our writing. Weak verbs generate wordiness, misplaced modifiers, and vagueness—none of which contribute to effective writing. Besides that forms of the verb “to be” yield the weakest verbs in English because they only denote that something exists. They do not fix meaning with any precision.
          And because the verb is weak, we usually have to add more words to sharpen the meaning of the sentence, often strings of prepositional phrases or modifiers. While we might wonder what the meaning of “is” is, it marks the most common verb we use in both speaking and writing. These verbs (is ,am, are, was, were) are not incorrect, but when you rely on them too heavily, you can clutter our prose with wordy, ineffective constructions. Normally you might find a perfectly good verb hiding in the sentence as some other part of speech. For examples
Weak and wordy
There is a lack of will by these officials to resolve the issues. (13 words).
Improved
These officials lack the will to resolve the issues. (9 words).

4. Description of Media
          Longman Dictionary of American English (2009: 325) defines media as a general term for television, radio and newspapers considered as a whole and as ways of entertaining or spreading news or information to a large number of people. In language teaching, teaching materials which involve the use of different kinds of media such as visual and printed media, are sometimes known as multi media or mixed media.
          Reeves (1998: 2) stated that the confounding of media (a symbol system) with technology (a delivery system for media) is unlikely to go away in popular discourse about education any time soon, but the distinction between media and technology must be clarified as unambiguously as possible if their impact is to be understood.
          Vergouwen (2006: 24) stated that why are (especially digital) media so important in the context of education? Firstly, digital media can help to build links between young people’s leisure and learning experiences. Secondly, it could be argued that all education is, in fact, mediated, since we always learn things through a certain medium, whether print, audio, visual or a combination of all.
          The media themselves have also changed significantly. They have become more diverse, complex and interactive. The digitalization of media, and therefore of information has, for example, led to more interactivity both between users and media and between different media devices. The media are not merely producers of content but also interactive platforms where the boundaries between media producers, consumers and distributors fade.
          With respect to education, media are the symbol systems that teachers and students use to represent knowledge; technologies are the tools that allow them to share their knowledge representations with others. Unfortunately, it is common for practitioners and experts alike to confound the meanings of media and technology in education, and they are often used synonymously.
           Moreover, Reeves (1998: 3) adds that why is so much attention paid to media and technology in education? First, with respect to media, there are many issues of concern to students, parents, educators, governments, and society at large. Another reason for the attention being paid to media and technology in education reflects commercial or corporate interests.
          However, even though media and technology may lack unique instructional effects, some educational objectives are more easily achieved with media and technology than in other ways. Media and technology can be more or less well-designed depending on the talents, resources, and timelines available for the development effort. There are numerous scientific principles to guide design.
          Media and technology also have many other advantages in terms of repeatability, transportability, and increased equity of access. In addition, although the research evidence is sparse, the cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit, and return-on-investment of media and technology may be of great benefit under certain conditions, especially in developing countries.
          Spencer (2009: 12) describes that in its final analysis, news may be defined as any accurate fact or idea that will interest a large number of readers; and of two stories the accurate one that interests the greater number of people is the better. The student should examine this definition with care as there is more in it than at first appears. Strangeness, abnormality, unexpectedness, nearness of the events, all add to the interest of a story, but none is essential. Even timeliness is not a prerequisite.

5. Description of Educational News
          In Longman Dictionary of American English (2009: 677) defines news as information about something that has happened recently, reports of recent events in the newspapers or on the radio or television. Among news themselves, there were several items which are always be reported repeatedly. For the time being the recent news is polio disease. But the intensity of published items are in newspapers, magazines, and television programs. It seems dominating by that news.
          Almost everyday people could find that news as object of publication. When certain people or things were recently reported many times by mass media it became hot news. It was said so because the up to date itself means as intense and immediate interest. That news was called as up to date because almost every source of reports such as newspapers, magazines, and television programs, even internet were discussed or broadcasted those up to date news as items of news.
          Thus, it is concluded that the up to date news is recent event reports of intense and immediate interest among society. If that news is interesting item, so it is good for teacher to use this up to date news as teaching materials as Good and Brophy (1990:129) suggested.
          Actually, there are many media of learning among students and this can be taken from magazines, newspaper, even from the Internet print out, television shows, films and talk shows as Rivas Mera (1999: 56) said. But there is a certain consideration. A teacher should take account before using various kinds of hot news as media of learning. It is hard for teachers to force the students to watch television, for films or talk show, because to wait for a needed media of learning takes time and when the television station broadcasts it, it cannot be everybody which is accidentally watch the program.
          Moreover, news that gets by hearing cannot be memorized fro a long time, and the person’s capability in grasping heard news is limited. It is only one and fifth percent of the original news. That is why the more sensible material to be sued as media of learning is taken from the printed text.
          Rivas Mera also explained that using printed text that is taken from the latest published is hoped that the students will get involved. It is said so because in this case the teacher will also make the students take part in finding the material s media of learning. This strategy of course can be fulfilled by two previous requirements as they were mentioned above. The strategy is authentic material and it matches to the students’ interest because during the process of selection, students will select the printed text that they think they like most. Of course, this is also part of teacher’s duty to organize students to be able to select the needed material.

6. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News Online
          British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News Online is the website of BBC News, the division of the BBC responsible for newsgathering and production. The website is the most popular news website in the United Kingdom and forms a major part of BBC Online (bbc.co.uk). The site records around 40 million unique users a week (around 60 to 70% of visitors are from the UK).
           Based on the site of Wikipedia (wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News_Online) the website of BBC news online contains international news coverage, as well as British, entertainment, science, and political news. Many reports are accompanied by audio and video from the BBC's television and radio news services, while the latest TV and radio bulletins are also available to view or listen to on the site together with other current affairs programmes.
          The site was named best news website at the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Awards every year from the website's creation until 2001 when the award category was withdrawn. In May 2012 the BBC News website won the People's Voice award for newswebsite at the 16th annual Webby Awards.
          The website was launched in November 1997, headed by founding editor Mike Smartt and assisted by Alfred Hermida. There had previously been special websites marking the 1995 Budget, the 1997 general election, as well as the death of Princess Diana in 1997, but nothing on the scale of the launch of the main site itself.
          There are two different editions of the site: a UK edition, which gives prominence to UK stories, and an International edition, which prioritises international news. All articles are archived indefinitely and can be retrieved via searching or by browsing the extensive Special Reports section, which contains collections of articles relating to major news stories. The previous seven days' top stories were formerly available through the Week at a Glance section of the website. Internet users with IP addresses originating from the UK are served the UK edition, all others receive the World edition.

B. Conceptual Framework
          In grammar, the infinitive is the form of a verb that has no inflection to indicate person, number, mood or tense. It is called the infinitive because the verb is usually not made finite, or limited by inflection (change in meaning - tense, person). The infinitive is often used as the noun form, as for many languages this is the basic form of a verb which is usually presented in dictionaries. In language classes, children are sometimes taught to think of it as the name of the verb.
          Many educationists have denied that a study of grammar can improve the ability to write English correctly and effectively, but it depends on what is taught and how it is taught. By reading news that full of grammar elements, can improve the students ability in understanding English.
          In English news, there are some elements that cannot be ignored that is a verb of infinitive. It is impossible for a writer or author in reporting news without using   infinitive. Since the infinitive is considered as the essential element, the researcher would like to analyze the types of infinitive forms and also the most dominant type of infinitive found in educational news. BBC News Online which is considered as one of the oldest news media, used as the object of this research. In BBC news online there are some topics or column that chosen to be analyzed.

(to be continued)

Jenis-Jenis Majas Perulangan

Majas Perulangan
a)   Aliterasi
Aliterasi adalah sejenis majas yang memanfaatkan purwakanti atau kata-kata yang permulaannya sama bunyinya.

b)  Antanaklasis
Antanaklasis adalah majas yang mengandung ulangan kata yang sama dengan makna yang berbeda ( Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 227). Dengan perkataan lain, antanaklasis adalah majas yang mengandung ulangan kata yang berhomonim.

c)  Kiasmus
Kiasmus adalah majas yang berisikan perulangan atau repetisi dan sekaligus pula merupakan inverse hubungan antara dua kata dalam satu kalimat ( Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 277).

d)  Repetisi
Repetisi adalah majas yang mengandung penggulangan berkali-kali kata atau kelompok kata yang sama (Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 278).

Belajar dari Skripsi/Thesis Lain

         Belajar dari Skripsi/Thesis Lain

                                                     Written by Ari Julianto





Memperbanyak membaca, menilai dan mengkaji isi skripsi atau thesis orang lain merupakan salah satu cara untuk mempersiapkan skripsi atau thesis Anda sebelum menulisnya Saya secara pribadi tidak melarang jika seorang mahasiswa mengcopy-paste beberapa alinea ke dalam skripsi atau thesisnyaasalkan apa yang dia lakukan itu dapat ia pahami dan dipertanggung jawabkan dan bukan sembarang copy-paste saja.

Mengapa saya mengatakan demikian? Sebelum saya menjawab, mungkin beberapa pertanyaan ini bisa mengarah untuk jawabannya.

1. Apakah semua mahasiswa benar-benar memahami Metodologi Penelitian?
2. Apakah semua mahasiswa memiliki keterampilan menulis dalam Bahasa Indonesia dengan baik?
4. Apakah semua mahasiswa mampu menulis 1 paragraf dengan baik dan benar dalam Bahasa Inggris?
5. Apakah semua mahasiswa memiliki standard qualified English?

Jika ke-5 pertanyaan saya diatas cenderung 'Tidak' karena tidak mungkin 'ya' maka alasan saya sudah terjawab. Jadi, sah sah saja jika seorang mahasiswa melakukan copy-paste bahan yang diabutuhkan asalkan bukan menjadi plagiat.

Namun, ada beberapa tips yang harus diperhatikan bagi Anda untuk melakukan copy-paste bahan yang Anda cari, antara lain:
1. Carilah judul skripsi yang hampir sama dengan judul skripsi Anda,
2.  Bacalah abstract di halaman pertamanya sebab abstract merupakan perwakilan dan seluruh isi skripsi.Apakah sama?
3. Perhatikan identification of the problem, problems of the study, scope and limitation. Apakah sama?
4. Pelajarilah outline di Chapter II Review of Literature sebab itu sangat membantu Anda untuk menyusun teori-teori dan kajian di Chapter II,
5. Perhatikan jenis risetnya. Apakah sama?
6. Cocokan kutipan para ahli (quotations) dengan reference atau  bibliography di akhir skripsi. Apakah sudah sesuai? Usahakan Anda juga memiliki referensinya juga.
7. Perhatikan rumus-rumus yang dipakai apakah sudah sesuai?
8. Jadikan skripsi yang Anda pegang itu sebagai bagian referensi Anda juga.

Jadi, cara mengcopy-paste bahan-bahan dari skripsi lain menurut saya sah sah saja asalakan seperti yang saya sebutkan di atas Anda dapat memahami dan bertanggung jawab terhadap isinya. Ada pengalaman pribadi dari saya ketika mengikuti sebuah meja hijau dimana seorang dosen dengan berangnya memarahi mahasiswa yang sedang diuji. "Saya tahu apa yang kamu lakukan di skripsi ini.Kamu kan tinggal caplok sana caplok sini!". Jika dia berkata pelan mungkin saya tidak tahu, tapi karena dia bersuara keras maka itu terdengar saya. Dengan tersenyum dan dalam hati saya berkata "Macam ente gak begitu".
Saya mengatakan demikian sebab saya tahu bahwa dia adalah tipe dosen yang jarang menulis. Menulis baginya hanya untuk mendatangkan uang yakni membuat diktat, itu pun strukturnya hancur-hancuran.

Akhir kata, perbanyaklah membaca skripsi atau thesis orang lain. Pelajari dan teliti dengan seksama. Bandingkan yang satu dengan yang lain. Insya Allah ini akan mempermudah Anda memahami isi skripsi atau thesis yang sedang Anda jalani.

Demikianlah posting saya kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amien.

Jenis-Jenis Majas Pertautan

Majas Pertautan
a)  Metonimia
Metonimia berasal dari bahasa Yunani meta berarti ‘bertukar’ + onym berarti ‘nama’. Metonimia adalah sejenis majas yang mempergunakan nama sesuatu barang bagi sesuatu yang lain yang berkaitan erat dengannya. Dalam metonimia sesuatu barang disebutkan tetapi yang dimaksud barang yang lain (Dale (et al), 1971: 234).

Metonimia adalah majas yang memakai nama ciri atau nama hal yang ditautkan dengan orang, barang, atau hal, sebagai penggantinya. Kita dapat 34 menyebutkan pencipta atau pembuatnya jika yang kita maksudkan ciptaan atau buatannya ataupun kita menyebut bahannya jika yang kita maksudkan barangnya (Moeliono, 1984: 3).

b)  Sinekdoke
Sinekdoke ialah majas yang menyebutkan nama bagian sebagai pengganti nama keseluruhannya, atau sebaliknya (Moeliono, 1984: 3).

Kata sinekdoke berasal dari bahasa Yunani synekdechesthai (syn ‘dengan’ + ex ‘keluar’ + dechesthei ‘mengambil, menerima’) yang secara kalamiah berarti ‘menyediakan atau memberikan sesuatu kepada apa yang menyatakan sebagian untuk pengganti keseluruhan (Date (et al), 1971: 236).

c)  Alusi
Alusi atau kilatan adalah majas yang merujuk secara tidak langsung kesuatu peristiwa atau tokoh berdasarkan praanggapan adanya pengetahuan bersama yang dimiliki oleh pengarang dan pembaca serta adanya kemampuan pada pembaca untuk menangkap pengacuan itu. Misalnya, Apakah peristiwa Madium akan terjadi lagi (kilatan yang mengacu ke pemberontakan kaum komunis). Tidak usah menjadi ‘sidik’ untuk membongkar korupsi itu (kilatan yang merujuk ke peristiwa ketika Menteri Penertiban Aparatur Negara menyamar sebagai orang kebanyakan). (Moeliono, 1984: 3).

d)  Eufemisme
 Kata eufemisme berasal dari bahasa Yunani euphemizein yang berarti ‘berbicara dengan kata-kata yang jelas dan wajar ‘; yang diturunkan  dari eu ‘baik’ + phanai ‘berbicara’. Jadi secara singkat eufemisme berarti ‘pandai berbicara; berbicara baik’. (Dale (et al), 1971: 239).

Eufemisme ialah ungkapan yang lebih halus sebagai pengganti ungkapan yang dirasakan kasar, yang dianggap merugikan, atau yang tidak menyenangkan. Misalnya meninggal, bersenggama, tinja, tunakarya. Namun, eufemisme dapat juga dengan mudah melemahkan kekuatan diksi karangan. Misalnya, penyesuaian harga, kemungkinan kekurangan makan, membebastugaskan (Moeliono, 1984: 3-4).

e)  Elipsis
Elipsis ialah majas yang di dalamnya dilaksanakan pembuangan atau penghilangan kata atau kata-kata yang memenuhi bentuk kalimat berdasarkan tata bahasa. Atau dengan kata lain, elipsis adalah penghilangan salah satu unsur penting dalam konstruksi sintaksis yang lengkap (Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 277).
Penghilangan yang dalam majas elipsis ini dapat berupa:

1. Penghilangan subyek
2. Penghilangan predikat
3. Penghilangan obyek
4. Penghilangan keterangan
5. Penghilangan subyek, predikat, dan obyek sekaligus.

g)   Gradasi
Gradasi adalah majas yang mengandung suatu rangkaian dan urutan (paling sedikit tiga) kata atau istilah yang secara sintaksis bersamaan yang mempunyai satu atau beberapa ciri semantik secara umum dan yang diantaranya  paling sedikit sati ciri diulang-ulang dengan perubahan-perubahan yang bersifat kuantitatif ( Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 277).

Jenis-Jenis Majas Pertentangan

Majas Pertentangan
a)  Hiperbola
Hiperbola adalah sejenis majas yang mengandung pernyataan yang berlebih-lebihan – jumlahnya, ukurannya, atau sifatnya – dengan meksud memberi penekanan pada suatu pernyataaan atau situasi untuk memperhebat, meningkatkan kesan dan pengaruhnya. Majasa ini dapat melibatkan kata-kata, frase, atau kalimat (Tarigan, 1983: 143).

Kata hiperbola berasal dari bahasa Yunani yang berarti pemborosan; berlebih-lebihan; dan diturunkan dari hyper ‘melebihi’ + ballein ‘ melemparkan’. Hiperbola merupakan suatu cara yang berlebih-lebihan mencapai efek, suatu majas yang di dalamnya berisi kebenaran yang direntang-panjangkan. (Dale (et al), 1971: 233).
Dengan kata lain “hiperbola ialah ungkapan yang melebih-lebihkan apa yang sebenarnya dimaksudkan : jumlahnya, ukurannya, atau sifatnya.” (Moeliono, 1984: 3).

b)  Litotes
Litotes adalah majas yang di dalam pengungkapan menyatakan sesuatu yang positif dengan bentuk yang negatif atau bentuk yang bertentangan. Litotes mengurangi atau melemahkan kekuatan pernyataan yang sebenarnya (Moeliono, 1984: 3).

Litotes, kebalikan dari hiperbola, adalah sejenis majas yang mengandung pernyataan yang dikecil-kecilkan, dikurangi dari kenyataan yang sebenarnya, misanya untuk merendahkan diri. (Tarigan, 1983: 144).
Litotes berasal dari kata Yunani litos yang berarti ‘sederhana’. Litotes, lawan dari hiperbola, merupakan sejenis majas yang membuat penyataan mengenai sesuatu dengan cara menyangkal atau mengingkari kebalikannya (Dale (et al) 1971: 237).

c)   Ironi
Ironi adalah majas yang menyatakan makna yang bertentangan, dengan maksud berolok-olok.
Maksud itu dapat dicapai dengan mengemukakan:

1. Makna yang berlawanan dengan makna yang sebenarnya,
2. Ketaksesuaian antara suasana yang diketengahkan dan kenyataan yang mendasarinya,
3. Ketaksesuaian antara harapan dan kenyataan (Moeliono, 1984:3).

Ironi adalah sejenis majas yang mengimplikasikan sesuatu yang nyata berbeda, bahkan ada kalanya bertentangan dengan yang sebenarnya dikatakan itu. Ironi ringan merupakan suatu bentuk humor, tetapi ironi keras biasanya merupakan suatu bentuk sarkasme atau satire walaupun pembatasan yang tegas antara hal-hal itu sangat sukar dibuat dan jarang sekali memuaskan orang (Tarigan, 1983: 144).

d)   Paronomasia
Paronomasia adalah majas yang berisi penjajaran kata-kata yang berbunyi sama tetapi bermakna lain; kata-kata yang sama bunyinya tetapi berbeda maknanaya (Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 278).

e)  Paralipsis
Paralipsis adalah majas yang merupakan suatu formula yang dipergunakan sebagai sarana untuk menerangkan bahwa seseorang tidak menyatakan apa yang tersirat dalam kalimat itu sendiri (Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 278).

f)   Zeugma
Zeugma adalah majas yang merupakan koordinasi atau gabungan gramatis dua kata yang mengandung ciri-ciri semantik yang bertentangan, seperti abstrak dan kongkrit (Ducrot & Todorov, 1981: 279).

Ragam Majas

Ragam Majas
Majas sesungguhnya beraneka ragam dalam kehidupan kita. Majas yang beraneka ragam itu dapat dikelompok-kelompokkan dengan berbagai cara bergantung dari cara memandangnya.
Majas Perbandingan
a)   Perumpamaan
Yang dimaksud dengan perumpamaan di sini adalah padanan kata simile dalam bahasa Inggris. Kata simile berasal dari bahasa Latin yang bermakna ‘seperti’. Perumpamaan adalah perbandingan dua hal yang pada hakekatnya berlainan dan yang sengaja kita anggap sama. Perbandingan itu secara eksplisit dijelaskan oleh pemakaian kata seperti, sebagai, ibarat, umpama, bak, laksana, dan sejenisnya.

b)   Metafora
Metafoa berasal dari bahasa Yunani metaphora yang berarti ‘memidahkan’; dari kata meta di atas; melebihi’ + pherein ‘membawa.’ Metafora membuat perbandingan antara dua hal atau benda untuk menciptakan suatu kesan mental yang hidup, walaupun tidak dinyatakan secara implisit dengan penggunaan kata-kata bak, seperti, laksana, ibarat, umpama, sebagai seperti pada perumpamaan (Dale (et al), 1971: 224). Kiasan atau metafora ialah perbandingan yang implisit – jadi tanpa kata seperti atau sebagai – di antara dua hal yang berbeda (Moeliono, 1984: 3).

Metafora adalah pemakaian kata-kata bukan arti yang sebenarnya, melainkan sebagai lukisan yang berdasarkan persamaan atau perbandingan (Poerwardarminta, 1976: 648).

Metafora adalah sejenis majas perbandingan yang paling singkat, padat, tersusun rapi. Di dalamnya terlibat dua ide: yang satu adalah suatu kenyataan, sesuatu yang dipikirkan, yang menjadi obyek; dan yang satu lagi merupakan perbandingan terhadap kenyataan tadi; dan kita menggantikan yang belakangan ini menjadi yang terdahulu tadi (Tarigan; 1983: 141).

c)  Personifikasi
Personifikasi berasal dari bahasa Latin persona (‘orang, pelaku, aktor, atau topeng yang dipakai dalam drama’) + fic (‘membuat’). Karena itulah maka apabila kita mempergunakan personifikasi, kita memberikan ciri-ciri atau kualitas-kualitas pribadi orang kepada benda-benda yang tidak berwarna ataupun kepada gagasan-gagasan, (Dale (et al), 1971: 221).

Dengan kata lain, pengingsanan atau personifikasi ialah jenis majas yang melekatkan sifat-sifat insane kepada barang yang tidak bernyawa dan idea yang abstrak.

d)  Alegori
Kata alegori berasal dari bahasa Yunani allegorein yang berarti ‘berbicara secara kiasan’ diturunkan dari allos ‘ yang lain’ + agoreuien ‘berbicara’.

Alegori adalah cerita yang diceritakan dalam lambang-lambang. Merupakan metapora yang diperluas dan berkesinambungan, tempat atau wadah obyek-obyek atau gagasan-gagasan diperlambangkan. Alegori kerapkali mengandung sifat-sifat moral atau spiritual manusia. Biasanya alegori merupakan cerita-cerita yang panjang dan rumit dengan makna, atau tujuan yang terselubung.

e)  Antitesis
Secara kalamiah antitesis berarti ‘lawan yang tepat’ atau ‘pertentangan yang benar-benar (Poerwadarminta, 1976: 52).

Antitesis adalah sejenis majas yang mengadakan komparasi atau perbandingan antara dua antonim (yaitu kata-kata yang mengandung ciri-ciri semantik yang bertentangan). (Ducrot & Todorov, 1979: 277).   

Pengertian Majas

Pengertian Majas
Majas selalu merupakan paralelisme makna. Dengan bantuan suatu citra, diungkapkan sesuatu yang lain, yaitu suatu gagasan atau pengertian. Ini berlaku, baik bagi majas yang merumuskan paralelisme makna secara tekstual (baik pembanding maupun yang disbanding hadir dalam teks) maupun bagi metapora dalam arti sebenarnya, yang hanya menyebutkan citra (pembanding). Dalam hal terakhir apa yang diacu oleh citra (yang disbanding) harus dibangun oleh pembaca (Luxemburg, 1989: 94).

Majas adalah pemanfaatan kekayaan bahasa, pemakaian ragam tertentu untuk memperoleh efek-efek tertentu, keseluruhan ciri bahasa sekelompok penulis sastra dan cara khas dalam menyampaikan pikiran dan perasaan, baik secara lisan maupun tulisan.

Majas adalah gaya bahasa dalam bentuk tulisan maupun lisan yang dipakai dalam suatu karangan yang bertujuan untuk mewakili perasaan dan pikiran dari pengarang.
Majas (figure of speech) ialah pilihan kata tertentu sesuai dengan maksud penulis atau pembicara dalam rangka memperoleh aspek keidahan.

Para pembicara dan para penulis yang efektif, benar-benar memanfaatkan bahasa kias atau majas untuk menjelaskan gagasan-gagasan mereka. Sarana retorik klasik telah dimanfaatkan oleh novelis Romawi Cicero dan Suetonicus yang memakai figura dalam pengertian ‘bayangan, gambaran, sindiran, kiasan’.

Majas, kiasan, atau ‘figure of speech’ adalah bahasa kias, bahasa indah yang dipergunakan untuk meninggikan serta meningkatkan efek dengan jalan memperkenalkan serta memperbandingkan suatu benda atau hal tertentu dengan benda atau hal lain yang lebih umum. Pendek kata, penggunaan majas tertentu dapat merubah serta menimbulkan nilai rasa atau konotasi tertentu (Dale (et al); 1971: 220).

Majas atau ‘figurative language’ adalah bahasa yang dipergunakan secara imajinatif, bukan dalam pengertian yang benar-benar secara kalamiah saja (Warriner (et al); 1977: 602).

Majas merupakan retorik, yaitu penggunaan kata-kata dalam berbicara dan menulis untuk meyakinkan ataupun mempengaruhi para penyimak dan pembaca. Kata retorik berasal dari bahasa Yunani rhetor yang berarti orator atau ahli pidato.pada masa Yunani kuno, retorik memang merupakan bagian penting dari suatu pendidikan dan oleh karena itu aneka ragam majas sangat penting serta harus dikuasai benar-benar oleh orang-orang Yunani dan Romawi yang telah memberi nama bagi aneka seni persuasi ini.

General & Specific Characteristics of Research

       General & Specific Characteristics of Research

 Written by Yogesh Kumar Singh in Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistic, Mumbai: New Age International Publisher, 2006. 


I. General
 The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’
1.  It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2.  It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3.  It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4.  It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5.  It is logical and objective.
6.  The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses.
7.  The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8.  It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
9.  Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10.  The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular
    and bring social disapproval.
11.  Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12.  Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.

II. Specific
The following are the main characteristics of research
1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research
2. Research is based on insight and imagination
3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach
4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process
5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better
6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science
7. Research is not the field of the specialist only
8. Research generally requires inexpensive material
9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena
10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method
11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect
12. Research cannot be a mechanical process

Well, I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.